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WHAT IS MAN? 



BY 



REV. BERNHARD MODIN, A. B. 




Published for the Author 



ROCK ISLAND, ILL. 

AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN 



**$ 



COPYKIGHT 1913 
BY 

BERNHARD MODIN. 



AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN, 

PRINTERS AND BINDERS. 



$2 a^o 

©CI.A332881 

7j » / 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction 9 

Preliminary 22 

I. Being and Kinds of Beings 22 

II. Substance and its Attributes 29 

a) Substance 29 

b) Attributes 31 

III. Space and Duration 33 

a) Space 33 

b) Duration 35 

IV. Life Principles 37 

V. Life and Death 44 

a) Life 44 

b) Death 50 

PART I. 

What is Man? 58 

a) Unsatisfactory Definitions 58 

b) The True Definition , 63 

Explanation of Terms in the Definition 63 

a) "Being" 63 

b) "Corporeal" 64 

c) "Moral" 64 

d) "Intelligent" 65 

The Body of Man 73 

Somatology 73 



4 

PAGE 

The Origin and Essense of the Human Body 73 

Male and Female 75 

Difference between the First Pair and their Offspring 

as to the Mode of Creation 76 

The Development of the Body 78 

The Organs and Functions of the Human Body 81 

1. Respiration 81 

2. Circulation of the Blood 82 

3. Digestion and Excretion 82 

4. The Nerves 83 

5. The Muscles 86 

6. The Bones 86 

The Parts of the Body most Important in the Active 

Service of the Spirit. . , 88 

1. The Hand 88 

2. The Foot 89 

3. The Head 90 

4. The Eye 90 

5. The Ear 92 

6. The Nose 94 

7. The Tongue 95 

8. The Skin 95 

PART II. 

The Spirit of Man 102 

Pneumatology 102 

The Origin and Essence of the Human Spirit 102 

Memory 112 

1. The Receptive Function of Memory 113 

2. The Retentive Function of Memory 114 

3. The Association of Ideas, or Memory Proper 115 

The States of the Spirit 125 

1. The State of Unconsciousness 125 

2. The State of Semiconsciousness 129 

3. The State of Self-consciousness 131 



5 

PAGE 

The Two Great Powers of the Spirit 138 

The Soul 148 

1. Psychology 148 

2. The Essence and Position of the Soul 148 

3. The Office of the Soul 149 

The Heart 153 

1. Cardiology 153 

2. The Essence and Position of the Heart 153 

3. The Office of the Heart 154 

The Faculties of the Spirit 170 

Sensibility 171 

1. Definition 171 

2. Cause of Feelings 177 

3. Means of our Feelings 178 

4. The Effects of Feelings 178 

A. Upon Sensibility 178 

B. Upon the Body and upon the Other Faculties 

of the Spirit 178 

5. The Aim of the Sensibilty 180 

6. Kinds of Feelings 181 

Physical Feelings . 182 

a) Vital Sensations 182 

b) Organ Sensations 183 

c) Sexual or Conjugal Feelings 183 

Intellectual Feelings 184 

Subjective Feelings 185 

a) Imaginative Feelings 185 

b) Potential Feelings 186 

c) Economical or Industrial Feelings 187 

d) Feelings of the Ludicrous 188: 

e) Aesthetic Feelings 18& 

f ) Moral Feelings 19a 

g) Religious Feelings 192 

Objective Feelings 194 

a) Natural or Realistic Feelings 195 

b) Supernatural or Idealistic Feelings... 196 



6 

PAGE 

Volitional Feelings 198 

a) Elective Feelings 199 

b) Inclinations 200 

c) Desires : 200 

The Understanding 211 

Perception 212 

The Thinking Faculty, or Intellect 217 

1. Recollection 219 

2. Conception 220 

3. Judgment 226 

4. Reasoning 227 

5. Imagination 229 

6. Conscience 232 

The Will 244 

1. Attention 251 

2. Choice 252 

3. Decision 254 

4. Execution 256 

The Development of the Spirit 264 

The Temperaments 270 

The Emotive Temperament 273 

a) The Optimistic Temperament 273 

b) The Pessimistic Temperament 274 

The Contemplative Temperament 274 

a) The Idealistic Temperament 274 

b) The Materialistic Temperament 275 

The Volitive Temperament 275 

The Strength of the Spirit 279 

Man as the Image of God 287 

Conclusion 300 



DIAGRAMS. 



PAGE 

The Faculties of the Spirit 100 

The Attitude of the Heart and the Soul in disconnect- 
ed action 157 

The Heart and the Soul in united action 158 

Sensibility 166 

The Sensorium of Pleasure and Pain 176 

The Understnnding 204 

The Will 240 

Freedom of Will 247 




Introduction. 

The inception of this work has its interesting 1 history. 
A certain association of theologians, about fourteen years 
ago, decided that the author should present a thesis on 
the subject, "The Difference between Soul and Spirit" 
The proposition and the acceptance of the subject caused 
a general smile, considering the unique nature of the 
subject. The work, however, was taken up in earnest, 
all books available at the time were consulted and emi- 
nent authors were freely quoted to prove the alleged 
difference. But the more the author penetrated the sub- 
ject, the more the whole proposition seemed to lose itself 
in chaos. It was an Herculean undertaking, after all. 
When the thesis was presented, it called forth favorable 
comment, and a request for its publication. Yet the 
author did not feel satisfied with a work resting wholly 
on authority, not on independent thought, and publica- 
tion was consequently deferred. 

But the subject in question seemed to be of so vast 
importance that it would be worth while to take it up 
again and even make it a life-study, if necessary. So 
the author again began to probe the obscure depths of 
a problem which at first seemed to baffle all efforts at 



10 
solution. At last he decided to liberate himself from 
many acquired philosophical notions concerning the hu- 
man spirit, and going as a child to the Booh of Books, 
he began to study the Bible in Hebrew, and Greek, and 
translations, with reference alone to its teaching as to 
the soul and the spirit. And he is glad to say that "there 
was light," and that out of chaos came, step by step, 
order and system. 

Of the original languages of the Bible and their trans- 
lations it may be remarked, however, that the student 
cannot always rely on the terms for soul, heart, spirit, 
and the like, being literally rendered. In translation, 
it seems, Biblical conceptions often have had to yield to 
ancient or modern philosophical ideas concerning the 
human mind. The student is, therefore, kindly advised 
to compare the original with the different translations 
and judge for himself. 

After more than ten years of interrupted study the 
author now feels more satisfied with respect to the solu- 
tion of the problem, and offers herewith the best fruit 
of his labor, and even more than at first thought of, 
adding also a study of the whole man, that is, the ele- 
ments of Anthropology. 

In the presentation, elaboration and details have been 
sacrificed for conciseness. Yet nothing essential or vital 
has been omitted. Criticism of other authors in the 
same field has been studiously avoided, each being left 
to stand or fall on his merits in the judgment of the 



11 

competent reader. This volume, therefore, does not 
pretend to be a compendium of other authors' ideas or 
principles. 

In publishing this little volume the author is fully 
aware that it will have to pass through an ordeal of 
crossfires, on account of its standpoint, resting as it does 
in many instances essentially upon the Rock of Ages, 
the Holy Scriptures. We know by our own experience 
that we feel and think and will, and that we possess 
certain peculiar inclinations as to morality, religion, etc. 
And from the recorded history of man in all his deal- 
ings with himself and other beings, and from his intel- 
lectual and material works, we are capable of drawing 
certain conclusions as to what man is, in a general way. 
All this, then, we know by experience. But as to the 
origin and essence of the human spirit we know abso- 
lutely nothing by experience. This knowledge we must 
acquire from divine revelation. We need not, therefore, 
guess about those things and apologize for our ignorance 
as did Cicero, who said: "Whether the soul is of air or 
fire I do not know, neither am I ashamed as other 
philosophers are, to acknowledge this my ignorance in 
things of which I have no knowledge. But should I in 
an obscure thing dare to express my earnest and firm 
conviction, I would be ready to swear to the fact that 
whether the soul consists of air or fire, it surely is of 
divine origin." Indeed, the Holy Scriptures are able 
to give us a most perfect picture of man, even his heart, 



12 

the innermost part of his spirit. We find in those writ- 
ings the very best elements of true Anthropology. 

As to the study of the human body, we have already 
at hand in the domain of knowledge many excellent 
works. For a deeper and more comprehensive knowl- 
edge of the human body, therefore, I would refer the 
reader to any special work on either Anatomy or Physi- 
ology, and this I do especially for the reason that I have 
had in view merely to show the relation of the body to 
the spirit. This relation thus pointed out may, however, 
prove to be of particular value in understanding the 
importance and value of the human body. The study 
of the human spirit is a far more difficult subject. This 
is not strange, for the subject-matter in this study is 
entirely invisible, while the subject-matter of the body 
is visible. Even in this field of study we find many 
valuable works by eminent authors. With reference to 
their respective works I would say: Omnia probate, 
quod bonum est tenete. 

I cherish the hope that this little volume may be use- 
ful in the world, especially among those who love the 
Word of God, were it not more than to give them an 
impetus to a deeper study of man. The value of the 
study of Anthropology can hardly be overestimated. 
Next to the study of Theology there is, undoubtedly, 
no study so important and valuable as this. For 
by the study of Anthropology man will better learn 
to know himself and better understand his duty as 



13 
man. To educators in particular, this study is indis- 



Tke study of man is not new. It is as old as man 
himself. The question, What is man? has sounded 
through all the ages since the abode of man in Paradise. 
This question has been asked particularly with reference 
to God's dealings with man. Thus we read: "What is 
man that thou shouldest magnify him and that thou 
shouldest set thy heart upon him?"* In this treatise we 
shall endeavor to answer that most important of ques- 
tions: What is man? 

The author has prepared a number of questions to this 
work, hoping that they will be of practical value to the 
student. These questions have been placed at the begin- 
ning of the different topics, for a special purpose. By 
this method the student will at once realize not only the 
extent of the field in question, but also its wonderful 
depth. He may also, perhaps, realize at once the weight 
of the critical test of his own already acquired knowl- 
edge when weighed in the balance of these questions, 
and thereby be aroused to an ardent desire for a deeper 
insight into the subject. To awaken this longing and 
to stimulate his interest in finding the answers, is the 
main object of these questions. 

The Author. 

Vasa, Minn., June, 1912. 



* Job 7: 17; Hebrew 2: 6. 



PRELIMINARY CHAPTER. 



QUESTIONS. 



1 What is the main inquiry of this book? 

2 What do we call the science concerning man ? 

3 From what sources may we derive data upon which 
to construct this science? 

4 Is anthropology an easy or a difficult subject to un- 
derstand ? Why ? 

5 What can you state as to the importance of this 
study ? 

6 Is this a new study? Explain. 

7 Describe being. 

8 What is meant by absolute being? 

9 What is meant by relative being? 

10 What is our conception of a being and a thing? 

11 What is a spiritual being? 

12 What is a material being or thing? 

13 Can a spirit unite with matter ? Give an example. 

14 Do spiritual beings unite with each other ? Give an 
example. 

15 What do we mean by universe? 

16 How could a division of beings be best attained ? 

17 Give an outline of the division of beings. 

18 Which are the two worlds, or domains, of which the 
universe consists ? 



18 

19 Is it possible for man to fully comprehend and ex- 
plain the universe? Why? 

20 How can we know anything concerning the invisible 
God, or the spiritual world ? 

21 What is meant by the substance of a being? 

22 Of how many general kinds are substances ? 

23 What is an elementary substance? 

24 Name an element. 

25 Name a compound. 

26 Are elementary substances easily separated after they 
have once united? 

27 What is meant by attributes of a being? 

28 Could we comprehend or know anything concerning 
a being which did not possess attributes ? 

29 What is the difference between essential attributes 
and accidental attributes? 

30 Give an example of essential attributes; also of acci- 
dental attributes. 

31 What, then, constitutes a being or thing ? 

32 What is meant by space ? 

33 What is the difference between place and space ? 

34 What is meant by vacant space? 

35 Can we see space? 

36 What is the nearest visible thing indicating space? 

37 Do we know what space is in itself? 

38 What does space imply ? 

39 What can you state concerning the space occupied 
by God? 

40 Could we comprehend a being which did not occupy 
space ? 

41 Which is the larger idea, being or space? 



19 

42 What do we mean by absolute space? By relative 
space ? 

43 What is meant by duration ? 

44 What does it imply? 

45 How do we compute the duration of being ? 

46 What is meant by absolute eternal duration? By 
non-absolute eternal duration? By temporal dura- 
tion? 

47 What is a life principle ? 

48 Of how many kinds are life principles ? Explain. 

49 Why must we rely upon a first, or ultimate cause? 

50 Would it be well for us not to believe in a first 
cause ? 

51 What essentially constitutes a person? 

52 What is the essential difference between a person and 
an animal with inference to their respective life prin- 
ciples ? 

53 Is an animal an intelligent being? 

54 How can you prove that animals have no conscience ? 

55 Is the inorganic. world without life? Prove it. 

56 What is the cause of the life of a plant? 

57 What can you state in regard to the rank and work- 
ings of life principles? 

58 Can a life principle by virtue of its own power rise 
above its own level or transcend the limits of its own 
sphere of activity? 

59 Can it rise at all, and how ? 

60 What, then, seems to be the universal law with re- 
spect to life principles? 

61 What life principles do we find in the universe? 

62 Which is easier to describe, a life principle or its life ? 
Why? 



20 

63 Are life principles and life identical words? 

64 What is the difference between a life principle and 
its life? 

65 What is our aim in studying a life principle and in 
studying life? 

66 What is history? 

67 What conclusion may we draw from the history of 
human life? 

68 What is meant by external life? 

69 What is meant by inner life ? 

70 Whence are the issues of life ? 

71 Is there any difference among men as to the influ- 
ence of their life? Explain. 

72 What is a life center? 

73 Where is it localized? 

74 By what particular means do we come in touch with 
the individual life centers? 

75 What can you state as to the power of a language? 

76 Is there in the world a really "dead" language? 

77 What can you state as to the future value of a spoken 
and a written language ? 

78 Is it possible for a person to make his thoughts, feel- 
ings and volitions, that is, the power of his person- 
ality, to be felt at a distance, say of miles, without 
the aid of articulate sounds or letters ? 

79 What reason can you give for your belief ? 

80 Upon what does life depend with respect to its dura- 
tion? 

81 What can you state concerning the life of natural 
forces ? 

82 What kind of life do we find in the universe ? 

83 What is death? 



21 

84 What is meant by spiritual death? 

85 What is meant by bodily death? 

86 What "universal law seems to be established as to a 
dead life principle or a dead body? 

87 Wiry do we fear death? 

88 Does death mean annihilation? 

89 What is meant by temporal death? 

90 What is meant by eternal death? 

91 Where is man's place in the universe of beings? 




PRELIMINARY. 
I. BEINGS AND KINDS OF BEINGS. 

A being or thing is that which exists. 

In order to be known a being must be either 
an object of direct perception or an object of 
thought, or both. Things may exist of which we 
have no knowledge at present, but which may be 
known in the future. A being or thing, therefore, 
may be actual or ideal. Thus, with reference to 
our present knowledge, man is an actual being 
and God is an ideal being, for no human being 
has ever seen God. 

A being we may also call a thing. The idea of 
a being generally suggests a life principle or a 
force within that being, by virtue of which it 
moves from place to place, having a will of its 
own, as it were. The idea of a thing suggests a 
force from without, by virtue of which it is moved 
from place to place, and without which it remains 
in loco. Thus, for instance, a horse is a being, 
but a stone is a thing. 



23 
There are different kinds of beings in the uni- 
verse. These are either absolute or relative, spir- 
itual or material, elementary or compound, moral 
or not moral, intelligent or non-intelligent. 

By an absolute being we mean one that is inde- 
pendent of all other beings and, therefore, is self- 
sufficing. There is, however, only one absolute 
being, namely God, the Creator. Of course, every- 
thing directly pertaining to God, as His essence, 
attributes, words and acts, etc., must be consid- 
ered absolute. 

A relative being is one chat is dependent. All 
created beings or things are relative. 

By a spiritual being we mean any being or 
thing that transcends our present power of per- 
ception, particularly our vision, and which must, 
therefore, be an object of thought alone. Only 
by means of revelation through material things 
can we grasp the idea of a spiritual being. Thus, 
for instance, God is a spirit, angels are spiritual 
beings, the human mind is spiritual, and so is also 
the life principle of an animal. Ideas or words, 
formed by the human spirit and revealed through 
articulate sounds, are spiritual things. 

A material being or thing is one that exists in 
such a way as to be apprehended by our power 
of perception, that is, by means of our sense- 



24 
organs. Thus, the human body is a material be- 
ing, a flower is a material thing. 

An elementary being or thing is one that con- 
sists of a single element. Thus oxygen, hydro- 
gen, and gold are elementary things. Elementary 
material things, so far as known, are very few in 
number. There are, no doubt, also spiritual ele- 
ments, although these are as yet unknown. 

A compound being or thing is one that is com- 
posed of two or more elements constituting a 
whole. Water, for instance, is a composition of 
two elements, oxygen and hydrogen; the atmos- 
phere mainly of oxygen and nitrogen; milk of 
water, butter, caseine, sugar, phosphate, chloride 
and soda; common salt of chlorine and sodium. 
Material things are found mostly in masses, 
great or small, as an ocean or as a dewdrop, as a 
mountain or as a grain of sand. The earth is the 
most conglomerate mass of material things we 
know of. As material things unite, so may 
also spirtual beings unite with each other, and 
spiritual beings even unite with material beings. 
Thus God may unite with man's spirit, and 
angels may enter the human spirit so as to 
require the power of the Almighty to separate 
them. 1 And the spirit of man is, at least in the 
present world, very intimately united with a ma- 
il Mark 5: 1—20. 



25 
terial body. Man is, therefore a spirito-corporeal 
being. 

A moral being is one that possesses a conscience 
and, therefore, has moral obligations. A moral 
being is a person. God, angels, and man are 
moral or personal beings. 

A non-moral or impersonal being is one that 
is destitute of the personal element, conscience. 
As far as we know, animals are non-moral beings, 
as are also plants and all inorganic matter. 

An intelligent being is one that possesses the 
power of perception, feeling, thinking, and wil- 
ling. All persons are intelligent beings. So are 
also, to some extent at least, the animals. 

A non-intelligent being is one that lacks the 
power to perceive, feel, think, and will. Plants 
and inorganic matter are non-intelligent beings 
or things. 

Being, then, is a fundamental concept, and be- 
longs to every object, whether spiritual or ma- 
terial. We therefore call the concept being a uni- 
versal concept. 

By the word universe is generally understood 
all created beings or things — the creation; but 
from our point of view, taking everything into 
consideration that can enter into our mind as an 
idea or be an object of thought, we also include 
in the word universe God, the Creator. All beings, 



26 
therefore, combined into one whole, the Creator 
as well as the creation and the product of human 
activity — everything that exists in one form or 
other, constitute the universe. 

A general classification of beings should be 
based, not upon the external forms of beings, but 
upon the controlling powers in the universe, that 
is, the life principles or vital forces, so far as 
they are known to man. This process would give 
us the following classification, probably as nearly 
adequate and logical as the difficulties of the task 
will permit. 



td 



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sr 1 



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P 

3 



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O 

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80 



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o 
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CD 

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28 

The chief purpose of such a classification, im- 
perfect though it be, is to designate the place of 
man in the universe and his relation to God and 
creation. 

In the universe there is a spiritual as well as 
a material world, and there is a constant corre- 
spondence of some kind or other between these 
two worlds. As spirito-corporeal beings we are 
part of the spiritual world, for, "there is a spirit 
in man/' x 

The human mind, being dependent, cannot per- 
fectly comprehend the universe. Many things 
must necessarily far transcend the horizon of the 
searching eye of human reason. We must, there- 
fore, agree with the great Apostle who said : "We 
see through a glass darkly" and know things only 
"in part." 2 Nevertheless, man strives to reach 
even beyond the borders of eternity, and to ex- 
plore those regions which mortal eyes never have 
seen. Without revelation this can never be ac- 
complished. But by means of revelation, through 
the created world or through the divine word in 
Holy Writ, not only the innermost part of man, 
the spiritual heart, but even the Almighty Himself 
becomes known to us, as it is written: "That 
which may be known of God is manifest in them" 
and "The invisible things of Him since the crea- 



1) Job 32: 8. 2) 1 Cor. 13: 12. 



29 
tion of the world are clearly seen, being perceived 
through the things that are made, even His ever- 
lasting power and divinity." 1 Through the Son 
of God, however, the most perfect knowledge of 
the spiritual and eternal world has been delivered 
unto us. 

The universe is great, and no mortal being is 
able to comprehend it, no, not even in its smallest 
detail. It is well, indeed, that God has granted 
eternity to the human heart, for time alone is too 
short for man to study thoroughly even a small 
part of this vast field. 



II. SUBSTANCE AND ITS ATTRIBUTES. 

a) SUBSTANCE. 

We have described the concept being as any- 
thing that exists or is, but we have said little or 
nothing as to what constitutes a being. A being 
must consist of something, and this something 
we call substance. The substance of a being or a 
thing must be either spiritual or material or both 
in union. 

Etymologically, substance means that which 
"stands under." By substance, therefore, we 



1) Rom. 1: 20. 



30 
mean that which constitutes the foundation upon 
which anything else must rest, and consequently 
the abiding part of a being in distinction from 
the accidental; the ultimate or non-decomposable 
constituent or constituents of a being, that is, an 
element. Elementary substances are compara- 
tively few, but substances in the composition of 
two or more elements, compounds, are numerous. 
An elementary substance is non-decomposable, as 
far as we know, but substances in which several 
elements are united may be decomposed by certain 
agencies into their constituents or primary ele- 
ments. In the world of matter we have found 
about eighty different elementary substances, 
such as, hydrogen, oxygen, sodium, chlorine, car- 
bon, gold, etc. In rock salt we find two elements 
united, namely sodium and chlorine; in water: 
hydrogen and oxygen. 

In the spiritual world we may, perhaps, find 
similar elementary and secondary substances. 
God as well as angels will readily unite with man's 
spirit, and it will require a wonderful power or 
agent, yea, the power of God, to separate, for 
instance, the spirits of the angelic world from the 
spirit of man, not to speak of the different forces 
in nature, as gravitation, cohesion, adhesion, 
chemical affinity, and the like. 



31 



[Spiritual. 

Substances [Elements. 

[Materials 

[Compounds. 



b) ATTRIBUTES. 

To distinguish between substance and attributes 
is not an easy task. The subject now under con- 
sideration has always been a vexed problem, espe- 
cially among philosophers. By attributes we mean 
that which is inherent in a substance, that by 
which we distinguish one being from another. 
Attributes belonging to an elementary substance 
must be essential, otherwise we could never know 
a particular substance, but attributes belonging to 
substances in which several elements have united 
may be accidental, that is, they may disappear. 
The essential attributes are inseparable from the 
substance itself, as life is inseparable from a life 
principle. Without the life the substance of a 
life principle could never be known to us, and, 
likewise, without the attributes we would know 
absolutely nothing of either a material or a spir- 
itual substance or essence. 

Gold and silver are elementary substances. The 
essential attributes of gold are, among others, its 
yellow color and its brilliant lustre, and those of 



32 
silver its whiteness and metallic lustre. These, 
then, are essential attributes. Take away the yel- 
low color and we lose the idea of gold as we now 
understand it. In the compound substance rock 
salt, for instance, we find by analysis two ele- 
ments, sodium and chlorine. Look at a piece of 
rock salt. It is in appearance a hard, white and 
sparkling substance, saline to the taste. Separat- 
ing these constituents, we find the element sodium 
to be a light substance, floating on water, and pos- 
sessing a bright metallic lustre. Chlorine, again, 
we find to be a gas, greenish-yellow in color, and 
having a very disagreeable odor, the gas itself 
being very dangerous to life. Neither of these 
elements now possess attributes or properties of 
salt. By decomposition those attributes have been 
lost. These lost attributes, then, peculiar to com- 
mon salt, we call accidental attributes. 

From the above it will be seen that in individual 
or primary elements we find essential attributes 
and in secondary substances or compounds we find 
accidental attributes. 

The composition of a human being, spirit and 
matter, may likewise, after decomposition, lose 
some attributes which may not appear in the life 
to come and which would not be necessary there. 

Substance and attributes, then, constitute a be- 
ing or thing. And as we find spiritual and ma- 



33 
terial substances we also find spiritual and ma- 
terial attributes. 

[Essential. 
Attributes^ 

I Accidental. 



III. SPACE AND DURATION. 
a) SPACE. 

Every being or thing must occupy space, that 
is, it must be at one and the same time either 
somewhere or everywhere. God alone, however, 
can occupy all space ; created beings or things can 
occupy only a certain portion of space, and such 
a portion of space we call a place. A tree, for 
instance, occupies a certain portion of space: its 
roots are under the ground, its trunk and branches 
extend up into the air. If I cut the tree down 
and remove it to some other place, the space which 
the tree occupied still remains. We may call that 
space vacant after the tree has been taken away, 
but in reality there is no such thing as a vacant 
space, for certainly air, light, or darkness occupy 
it. By vacant space, therefore, we mean this, that 
there is no perceivable object in the same, forming 
an obstacle to some other object. But suppose we 
also could remove the air from that treeless space, 



3i 
would it not become vacant then? No; for we 
certainly could not remove both light and dark- 
ness from that space. 

Now, a tree is something that has a fixed place. 
But the great mass constituting the earth itself 
occupies a considerable portion of space as it re- 
volves in its orbit. Suppose we make a dash in our 
mind, from the earth into space, and land, say, in 
the sun. We would, then, have passed through 
space a distance of about ninety-five millions of 
miles. Not contented with that we might make 
another dash through space, now from the sun to 
the planet Neptune, for instance, a distance com- 
puted to be about two thousand eight hundred and 
ninety-eight millions of miles. Who can fully 
comprehend the distance from the earth to the 
starry firmament? And yet we have only con- 
sidered finite or measurable space. What, then, 
shall we say of infinite space, occupied by the 
Almighty God before the "beginning" of the pres- 
ent world ! 

Space is in itself an invisible thing, and the 
nearest visible things indicating its presence are 
light and darkness. The space occupied by God, 
before the world was made, must be light, eternal 
light, for "God is light and in Him is no darkness 
at air' 1 and He dwells "in light unapproachable." 2 

1) 1 John. 1: 5. 2) 1 Tim. 6: 16. 



35 
This space of light in which God dwells must have 
its source in and with God Himself and, no doubt, 
consists of God's own glory and, therefore, in- 
finitely surpasses the created light which illumines 
the world. Yet this light is not space, but simply 
occupies space. 

We do not know what space is in itself. Space 
implies extension, that is, length, breadth, and 
depth. The idea of space, however, is a correlate 
of being, for it is impossible to think of a being 
that does not occupy space. With the exception 
of God, who is absolute, space is a larger idea with 
reference to being. 

Since God was before the world was, and since 
He is eternal, we must distinguish between that 
space which is peculiar to God and that of created 
beings. We may, therefore, call the space pecu- 
liar to God absolute space and that peculiar to 
created beings non-absolute or relative space. 

fAbsolute. 
Space^j 

[Non-absolute or relative. 

b) DURATION. 

By duration is meant the length of time during 
which a being exists. Duration implies by neces- 
sity a past, a present, and a future. Strictly 
speaking, we are always living in the present, the 



36 
past is behind us and the future before us. By 
means of memory we bring with us past experi- 
ences. We can plan for the future. 

By means of natural chronometers, as the sun 
and the moon, and by means of artificial time 
keepers, as hour glasses, clocks, and the like, we 
are able to measure the duration of many tem- 
poral material beings and things, in years, months, 
days, hours, minutes and seconds. The duration 
of eternal beings we have no means of measuring. 

Many things endure only for a short time, 
others endure for ever. There are beings of tem- 
poral duration, and there are beings of eternal 
duration. God, as an absolute being, has an ab- 
solute eternal duration. The angels and the spirit 
of man are also of eternal duration, but since 
they are created beings we call their duration non- 
absolute eternal, that is, they have a beginning 
but no end of existence. The duration of ani- 
mals, plants, and other things of inferior nature, 
again, which have not only a beginning but also 
an end, we call temporal. The duration of any 
being or thing depends on the nature of its life 
principle. 

fAbsolute eternal. 



Duration- 



Non-absolute eternal. 
Temporal. 



37 
IV. LIFE PRINCIPLES. 

Every being or thing is either acting by virtue 
of a life principle from within or is acted upon 
from outside by a life principle or force. By a 
life principle, therefore, we mean the cause of 
life. 

Life principles are of two kinds, spirit and 
natural force. A spirit is an intelligent cause; 
a natural force is a non-intelligent cause. 

As causes of different kinds of life there are, 
in the first place, God, the absolute spirit, then 
the angelic spirit, the human spirit and the ani- 
mal spirit; and in the second place the natural 
forces, as gravitation, adhesion, and cohesion, 
chemical affinity, electricity, magnetism, and 
others. We thus find a higher and a lower order 
of life principles in the universe. 

The ultimate cause of all life is God. For "He 
himself giveth to all life and breath, and all 
things," and "in Him we live, and move, and have 
our being." 1 Our mind must rest in this first 
cause. Otherwise our mind will for ever lose its 
mooring as to eternal and supernatural things, 
and drift hither and thither as a ship without 
rudder, compass and anchor. Let us illustrate 
this point, showing the necessity of resting in a 

1) Acts 17: 28. 



38 
first cause. We make, then, the following small 
circles and read them from right to left, indi- 
cating them with letters thus: 

f e d c b a 
O O O O O O 

Suppose, then, that the circle a denotes the ulti- 
mate cause, God. Now, a child will sometimes 
ask: "Who made God?" And as guardians of 
the child we answer as we ourselves have been 
taught by our forefathers, "No one has made God, 
He is for ever." And I think the answer is cor- 
rect. But not only children ask such philosophi- 
cal questions, but even older people, at least in 
their heart, and this more than once in their life, 
wondering about the "origin" of God. But sup- 
pose we admit for a moment that the circle de- 
noted by a is caused by the circle b. Would we, 
then, be any better satisfied? I do not think so. 
For we would persist in asking the same question 
over and over again: who made b that made a? 
who made c that made b ? and so on, ad infinitum. 
What, then, is the use of this endless inquiry into 
the origin or ultimate cause? Why not first as 
well as last rest our mind in a as indicating the 
absolute? We will, therefore, do well if we — like 
the dove of Noah, which after searching for dry 



39 
land and finding no place to rest upon, returned 
to the ark — come back to the rock of ages, the 
revelation of God, in the study of things super- 
natural and eternal, trusting in God as the ulti- 
mate cause. Useless is otherwise our every at- 
tempt to penetrate the unknown past, the regions 
in existence before the horizon of time and eter- 
nity began to dawn and space was made ready 
for a material world. 

Life principles are the causes of life, of activi- 
ties and of states in the universe. They are the 
organizing and formative powers. The higher 
life principles cooperate with the lower in a most 
harmonious way. As a rule, a life principle of 
spiritual nature works from within outward, and 
a life principle of material nature works from 
without inward. Thus, with reference to man 
the life principle works from within, and with 
reference to the earth some vital force from 
without. 

The life principles of angels and man, for in- 
stance, are not only intelligent but personal. That 
which makes a life principle a person is essen- 
tially the moral nature of the spirit, or the con- 
science. The life principle of animals, though 
intelligent to some degree, is impersonal, because 
it lacks entirely the moral nature. The life prin- 
ciples of plants and of inorganic matter are like- 






40 
wise impersonal and even non-intelligent, that is, 
they have no understanding. 

Among all these life principles, from the high- 
est to the lowest, there is a gradual decrease in 
the nature of essence or substance as well as in 
intelligence and power, so gradual that it is im- 
possible to draw the exact line of transition. We 
learn from the Holy Scriptures that God and 
angels have a moral spirit, and by our own ex- 
perience that man also has a moral spirit, but 
where the difference lies, for instance, between 
angels and man, is very hard to determine. The 
difference must be more in degree than in kind. 
Comparing man and animals, again, we find less 
difficulty, for we know by experience and history 
that the animals have no morals, no conscience. 
If animals possessed the moral nature they cer- 
tainly have had ample time in the thousands of 
years since the days of creation to express it. 
The animals certainly have understanding, a cer- 
tain power of intelligence, instinct, as it is some- 
times called, but they have no conscience. And 
when we come to the comparison of the vital prin- 
ciples of the plants with the inorganic world, we 
can only surmise their nature. We cannot deter- 
mine the vital principle of the plant. We know, 
of course, that the plant lives, grows, and dies, 
and that is about all. We suppose that the life 



41 
principle of the plant is a natural force, although 
the poets love to write and sing about the "soul" 
of the flower. The inorganic world is generally 
supposed to be dead, void of life. But is it really 
dead? The microscope sometimes helps us to de- 
tect life where we otherwise saw no life at all. 
And, to turn our attention to larger things, does 
not the whole earth on which we live move in 
space? What power keeps it thus moving in its 
own orbit among innumerable suns and moons 
and stars? And what keeps this great world- 
mass of solids and fluids together and causes so 
many mechanical and chemical changes both in- 
side the earth and upon its surface? The answer 
is: the natural forces. Ah! the whole universe 
is full of life, of some kind or other, and conse- 
quently some underlying principle must be the 
cause of such phenomena. And surely when in 
the beginning of time the Almighty Spirit moved, 
brooding upon the face of the waters, and matter 
was formed according to the Divine Will, the in- 
organic world also received its due portion of 
God's life-giving word and power. 

As to the rank and workings of vital principles, 
it seems to be a universal law that an inferior 
vital principle can never rise above its own level 
or transcend its own sphere of activity, unless a 
superior vital principle condescends to it and 



42 
brings it up to a higher level. This is shown by 
the transformation of inorganic matter into the 
vegetable kingdom, and from that into the animal 
kingdom, and so on up to man. This law may 
also apply to the spiritual world. If, therefore, 
man shall rise in the scale of refinement and enter 
into a higher life, into personal communion with 
God, God must condescend to man and take him 
up. Such an elevation of man was perfected when 
Christ Jesus, the Son of God, was united with 
human nature, being conceived by the Holy Ghost 
and born of the blessed virgin Mary. 

We find in the universe the following life prin- 
ciples : 



43 





•d 


Ha 








2. 


? 








3 










o 










i— '• 










•d 










i— j 










CD 










02 










3 


1— 1 






1— '• 


O 


e+ 






3 
<-t- 


i 


CD 






CD 










fi" 




CD 






CD 




e+ 






s 










e-h 




-^ 








3 


g 








o 


O 








3 


•-$ 








& 


& 








o 










►-S 










Si. 


















3 


H 


•z 




t> 


&a 


&* 


02 ' 




cr 




CD 
GO 




02 

o 


P 


*2. 


o 




cT 


t— 1 

H 3 


5! 


crt- 

CD 




CD 


o 










^ 


o 








o 

CD 
02 


Hs 














3 a 


CD 


o 

o 




EL 


Spiri 
Angel 

Spir: 
Man 





It is not easy to describe, much less to define, 
a life principle; it is far more easy to tell what 
a life principle does or what it has done, and from 
its activities and works to draw conclusions. 






44 



V. LIFE AND DEATH. 

a) LIFE. 

Life and life principle are terms often used in 
a figurative sense to denote the same idea, and 
therefore these ideas are very often confounded. 
Even very learned men consider the words identi- 
cal. Life, therefore, according to these authori- 
ties, has become such a mysterious thing that no 
one knows what it is. From our point of view, 
however, life is not mysterious, though we must 
admit that the principle of life is very mysterious. 

Life principle and life differ as cause and ef- 
fect. Life is simply the phenomena of a life prin- 
ciple, or more fully stated: the actions, states or 
conditions of a life principle. These life mani- 
festations occur either within a life principle 
itself and by virtue of it, as in thoughts, feelings 
and volitions, or outside of it, in or through a 
material or spiritual body in all kinds of transi- 
tive actions. The life of the natural forces we 
notice more or less every day in nature. 

Such as the nature of a vital principle is, such 
will also its life be. Thus, human life, animal 
life, vegetable life all are very different and some- 
times very interesting. Of greatest interest to 
us is human life, since it vitally concerns our- 



45 
selves in this world, and, no doubt, will concern 
us in the world to come. A vital principle is 
always a hidden or invisible power ; life is an ex- 
ercise or an expression of that power. We may 
not understand the vital principle itself, but its 
life we may observe and study. We can study 
the life of a plant as soon as the seed has begun 
to germinate in the soil, noticing how it grows 
and how its buds and flowers spring out in full 
bloom. But what do we know concerning its life 
principle, or the cause of its life ? 

A vital principle is always one and the same 
cause wherever revealed, but its life may differ 
very much both in character and mode of expres- 
sion, according to circumstances, conditions, oc- 
cupations, etc. When we study a vital principle 
we try to find out what it is, as far as we are able, 
but when we study the life we find out what that 
vital principle is doing, or what it has done or 
sometimes even what it may do. This is the way 
history is made. The history of man is nothing 
but a record of what man has done, a record of 
human life. From this life-record we are able 
to draw valuable conclusions as to what man 
really is, although his spirit is invisible. 

The sum total of the products of an individual 
human life will be found, as far as it has been 
expressed and known to others, to consist of words 






46 
(spoken or written) and deeds. This is the ex- 
ternal life. But there is much going on in a hu- 
man soul concealed to all but God and the indi- 
vidual himself, as thoughts, feelings and volitions, 
which may never be expressed. This is the inner 
life. 

Life has its center of activity and its peculiar 
sphere of action, radiation, or influence. The 
center of individual human life is the heart of 
man. Out of this center spring "the issues of 
life." How far in distance and how long in dura- 
tion the influence of life may extend or last, is a 
matter very difficult to determine. The life of 
some individuals is felt all over the world, not 
only for the time being, but perhaps for hundreds 
and thousands of years to come. The influence 
of the life of others may radiate only over a na- 
tion, or a city, or a smaller community, outside 
of which it is, perhaps, not known. Every human 
being, however, exerts some influence upon his 
nearest surroundings, particularly his own family 
circle, within which he by necessity must be for 
a longer or shorter time. It is a great trutfi that 
"none of us liveth to himself." 1 A few words may 
stir the feelings of a whole family, or a com- 
munity, or a nation, yes, the whole world. A deed 
done in a moment may exert a similar far-reach- 

1) Rom. 14: 7. 



47 
ing influence. Indeed, a great responsibility rests 
upon every self-conscious human individual, and 
he does well if he heeds the admonition of the 
sage of olden times who said: "Keep thy heart 
with all diligence, for out of it are the issues of 
life." 1 

In the present world the spirit of man is local- 
ized in a material individual body. Therefore we 
know where the life centers are. The nearer we 
come to these centers, the more we will perceive 
the intensity of their life. But we may feel their 
influence even at a very great distance. A letter, 
a message, or a book will bring us immediately 
into touch with other spirits, as is often witnessed 
when our hearts thereby are filled with joy or 
sadness. 

The words of man, whether spoken or written 
or by other means communicated to us, are truly 
spirit and life, as witness the words of Him who 
said: "The words that I have spoken unto you 
are spirit, and are life." 2 For as the body is the 
bearer of our spirit, so are our words bearers of 
our spirit, and are life. There is no such thing 
as "a dead language," for spirit and life are ex- 
pressed and embodied in every language, whether 
now used or preserved only in writing. As long 



1) Proverbs 4: 23. 2) John 6: 63. 



48 i 

as there is a body having a spirit within, that 
body lives by virtue thereof. 

Written language, however, which consists of 
certain material marks, is not the only vehicle of 
the spirit. The air we breathe is also a vehicle 
of the same spirit in spoken language. But as 
to the future value of our spiritual riches the 
written language has a great advantage over the 
spoken language as a true and reliable conserva- 
tor of life in thoughts and deeds. The written 
language, moreover, is also under our direct and 
absolute control. This cannot always be said of 
the spoken language. Once uttered by mouth, the 
words go and are for ever gone, and may or may 
not be corrected. 

How far our thoughts, expressed or not, may 
travel is open to speculation. But if the mechan- 
ical instruments used in wireless telegraphy can 
be made to correspond with each other and convey 
the thoughts, actions and feelings of the human 
spirit at a distance of hundreds and thousands 
of miles, why, then, should not the individual 
spiritual instruments which we call our spirits, 
in some instances at least, be able to correspond 
with each other even at very long distances ? This 
method of communication, however, is so far un- 
known. But it is, no doubt, left for a more en- 
lightened generation to investigate this field and 



49 
discover the laws for such a wonderful communi- 
cation. Telepathy and mesmerism may even now 
hint to us the possibility of such advancement. 

The duration of a life principle depends upon 
the nature of that principle. A vital principle of 
temporal and mortal nature will live a temporal 
life only, and a vital principle of eternal nature 
will live an eternal life. Life, therefore, is tem- 
poral or eternal, or both. As to the human spirit, 
it begins its life in time and shall continue to 
live even after its separation from the temporal 
and material body and live for ever in eternity. 

God is a living God. As to His life, thoughts, 
feelings and volitions and His marvelous deeds, 
they are revealed in the Holy Scriptures and also 
in the created world. The life of angels is also 
revealed, and the life of man recorded in the same 
sacred writings. In these we find a true record 
of human life, a revelation of the human heart. 
In the history of the world as written by man 
himself without a specific divine guidance, we 
also find human life very vividly portrayed. Ani- 
mal life and plant life both come under the direct 
observation of human intellect and are partially 
recorded, as are also the workings of the natural 
forces. The phenomena of natural forces, how- 
ever, seem to be, in the majority of cases, a great 
mystery. Man stands in questioning wonderment 



50 
before the grand display of the aurora borealis, 
he listens to the thunders of volcanoes and ob- 
serves their eruptions of smoke, dust and fire; 
he watches with peculiar feelings the constant 
mechanical and chemical changes of the earth; 
he gazes at the starry heavens and wonders at the 
movements and changes of the celestial spheres — 
all these are life phenomena more or less occult 
to his astonished gaze. 

Life, then, we find to correspond with the life 
principles. Thus we have in the universe: 

1. God-life. This is revealed in the Holy 
Scriptures and was also set forth perfectly 
in and by the person of Christ Jesus, the 
Son of God. 

2. Angelic life. Of this we know very little 
outside of the Holy Scriptures. 

3. Human life. 

4. Animal life. 

5. Plant life. 

6. Inorganic life. 

b) DEATH. 

Death is a certain forlorn state of an inferior 
vital principle caused by the withdrawal of a 
superior vital principle from it ; or, of a material 
organism caused by the withdrawal of its vital 



51 
principle from the same. Thus when God with- 
draws from a human spirit that spirit becomes 
spiritually dead with respect to God, with whom 
it no longer stands in normal relation or corre- 
spondence. And when the human spirit departs 
from its material body, the body dies because it 
no longer has any correspondence with the spirit. 
"The body without the spirit is dead." 1 The body 
thus dead may, however, be acted upon by other 
vital principles of an inferior nature. This we 
find to be the case as soon as the spirit has de- 
parted from the human body, when the natural 
forces seize upon and cause it to decay, and at 
last it becomes inorganic matter. The body, hav- 
ing thus fallen into inorganic dust, will not rise 
from its low state until its former, or some other 
vital principle, vegetable or animal, takes hold 
of it and revives it. For the inorganic can never 
enter into the organic world without a force or 
power from above. This law may hold true also 
in the spiritual world. Death always brings with 
it the idea of separation, dissolution and degrada- 
tion. No wonder, then, that we shudder at the 
very thought of death. 

That death is a miserable state needs no proof. 
We know it to be a fact in the world of matter. 
But we know of death also with respect to the 

1) James 2: 26. 



52 
life principle of man, his spirit. What is its state 
but a miserable one before regeneration? And 
comparing its state before and after regenera- 
tion, what a radical difference! 

Death, consequently, does not by any means 
imply annihilation, but simply a certain state of 
being. As life is either temporal or eternal, so 
also death. We, therefore, speak of temporal and 
of eternal death, and its duration depends upon 
the nature of the vital principle. Only a vital 
principle of eternal nature can bring with it 
eternal death. 

[Eternal . 
Death] 

[Temporal. 

In this preliminary chapter we have studied 
such important subjects as beings, substance and 
attributes, space and duration, life principles, life 
and death. In doing so we have located man, the 
main topic of our treatise. We have found him 
among created beings to consist of two very dis- 
tinct natures with their peculiar general char- 
acteristics or attributes. We have found him oc- 
cupying a place suitable for the development of 
his personality, and in rank to stand between the 
angels and the animals. His life principle being 
a moral spirit, made in the image of God, he is 



53 
of eternal duration, and his nature being spirit 
and matter, his life, in this world, is by necessity 
a mento-physical life. It now remains for us to 
investigate and study in detail this most wonder- 
ful being so that we may be able to give a reason- 
able answer to the question, What is man? 




DEFINITION OF MAN. 



QUESTIONS. 



1 Is the definition : "Man is an intelligent being" satis- 
factory ? Why not ? 

2 Is the definition : "Man is a moral intelligent being" 
satisfactory? Why not? 

3 Is man an animal ? 

4 What is the reason that even men of science have de- 
fined man as an animal? 

5 Should we as Christians accept such a view of man ? 
Why not? 

6 State some of the definitions which define man as an 
animal. 

7 What objections can we offer to such definitions ? 

8 Is, then, the word "animal" so unsatisfactory ? 

9 State the true definition of man. 

10 Explain each of the terms used in this definition : 

a) "being". 

b) "corporeal". 

c) "moral". 

d) "intelligent". 

11 Which of these terms denote man's superiority? 

12 What are the two great component parts of man ? 



PART I. 

WHAT IS MAN? 

a) UNSATISFACTORY DEFINITIONS. 

To define man only as an intelligent being would 
not be sufficient or satisfactory, for such a defini- 
tion would not distinguish man from either ani- 
mals or angels which are intelligent beings, 
though their intelligence differs very greatly both 
as to power and brilliancy. But if we define man 
as a moral intelligent being we have at least sepa- 
rated him from the animals, which are non-moral. 
Yet even this definition is unsatisfactory, in so 
far as the angels also are moral intelligent beings. 
Thus far, then, we have not distinguished man 
from angels. This we can do by adding the term 
corporeal to the definition of man, for angels are 
incorporeal beings. If we glance over the outline 
on page 27 we shall find that man is not an ani- 
mal, nor is he an angel. 

The reason why so many, even in our day, de- 
fine our own genus as an animal, as their treatises 



59 
plainly assert, is, no doubt, due to the fact that 
they have looked upon man too much from the 
viewpoint of matter instead of looking at him 
from the viewpoint of spirit. 

There is no reason for thus degrading man. 
He is degraded enough as he is, in his sinful and 
forlorn state. He, therefore, needs to be elevated, 
if anything, if we thereby can do him justice. 
And tell me, why should not man be considered 
from his higher nature, his moral intelligence, 
rather than from his lower, his physical nature? 

This demoralizing tendency to belittle man, in 
considering him an animal, is surely of a ma- 
terialistic origin, which we as Christian people 
ought not to tolerate. For this false definition 
of man has wrought untold mischief in the educa- 
tion of man and in his opinion of himself. How 
can it be otherwise? When the youth and others 
are told by their instructors that they are ani- 
mals, they will soon believe it and act according- 
ly. Some authors and instructors, indeed, tell us 
that we are not exactly the same kind of animals 
as, for instance, the orang-outang, but we are 
better animals ! Hence these authors have defined 
or described man as follows: "Man is a thinking 
animal" ; "Man is a moral animal"; "Man is a 
worshipping animal", and the like. But in spite 
of all these beautiful attributes, man, according 



60 
to their definition, remains an animal and carries 
with him the odor of the brute. 

In separating man from the lower order of be- 
ings, the animals, we need not necessarily look 
with contempt upon the latter, many of which 
possess admirable traits and attributes, beauty 
of form and color, strength and agility, remark- 
able instinct and brute intelligence. But man is 
not an animal. 

A comparison of the spiritual and material re- 
sults of human activity with that of the animal 
world will convince us of the fact that man is 
lord over the animal kingdom and that which is 
below it, and that he stands on a plane by himself. 

For his well-being and for the enjoyment of 
life man has built up industries, as agriculture, 
forestry, mining, and manufactures; by most in- 
genious inventions he has facilitated communica- 
tion, transportation and travel ; he has established 
civil governments, and by mutual agreements and 
treaties enhanced peace and commerce; he has 
explored unknown regions of the earth and made 
discovery after discovery ; science has taught him 
to make use of nature's forces for motive power, 
and also to subdue and harness the most danger- 
ous force in nature, electricity; he has learned to 
make use of the most explosive gas, lastly he has 
learned to navigate the air like a bird. 



61 

A student of divine revelation as well as of 
his own nature and of the world about him, man 
has after long experience and laborious experi- 
ments eventually compiled the fruit of his ex- 
periences and researches in valuable literature 
on theology, pneumatology, anthropology, zoology, 
botany, astronomy, geology, geography, mathe- 
matics, physics, chemistry, and many others, each 
of which sciences is a marvelous testimony to 
man's genius, and constitutes a magazine of in- 
valuable knowledge. 

Man has also devoted himself to fine arts, such 
as music, poetry, painting, sculpture and archi- 
tecture, and has therein found sources of aesthetic 
pleasure and intellectual culture. 

The art of writing has enabled him to record 
truthfully his deeds, experiences, and thoughts, 
which furnish the material for history and phil- 
osophy. 

So much, then, for human activity. 

And now as to the results of animal activity. 
What do we find on the arena of animal life ? We 
find that by instinct the animals have propagated 
their species, and that is just about all that the 
animal kingdom has accomplished. No monu- 
ments of the animal world remain to tell its 
achievements. The coral reefs, fossils buried in 
the different strata of the earth, heaps of bones 



62 
in caves, or whole specimens imbedded in the ice 
of polar regions tell, though mutely, of a life that 
was, but not of any progress made. And as to 
present animal life, the bee, for instance, builds 
its cells now as no doubt it did in the beginning 
of time; the spider weaves its web now as in 
time immemorial. We have no signs that any 
improvement whatever has been made by the ani- 
mal kingdom. The services that the animal world 
has rendered mankind have been performed only 
by reason of the Creator's design impressed in 
the power of instinct, and by the employment of 
force and training on the part of man. The in- 
stinct, or animal intelligence, is in some cases 
certainly admirable, but the honor of the achieve- 
ments of the animal world is due not to the ani- 
mals themselves, but to the Creator and to man. 

In the light of history and present-day facts, 
therefore, what being on earth is man's equal, or 
can ever approximate him? Morally, mentally, 
and physically man stands alone, an intermediary 
between angels and animals. 

The animal kingdom stands now where it al- 
ways has stood. The only progress it has made 
may be summarized in the following phrase : the 
survival of the fittest, or rather, the strongest, 
in the great struggle for existence. 

Man, again, advances steadily, improving him- 



63 
self and the world, and he shall advance continu- 
ally, making material things subservient to his 
higher ideals, until he at last shall rise to a purely 
spiritual and blissful state of existence. Over the 
program of man may truly be written the word : 
Excelsior; for spirituality, heavenly-mindedness, 
is the goal of mankind. 

b) THE TRUE DEFINITION. 

Man is a corporeal moral intelligent being. This 
definition, however, may be somewhat abbrevi- 
ated, knowing as we now do that the only cor- 
poreal being that belongs to the class of moral 
beings is man, and that morals presuppose by 
necessity the power of intelligence. Therefore, 
we may state the definition thus : man is a cor- 
poreal moral being. 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS IN THE 
DEFINITION. 

a) "BEING." 

This term has already been explained, where- 
fore we do not need to enter into further anal- 
ysis. I say analysis, for, in fact, we cannot 



64 
define the concept being. It is a fundamental or 
universal concept, like the concept space. Being, 
however, is the summum genus among all con- 
cepts. Being is anything that exists. 

b) "CORPOREAL." 

The term corporeal in the definition of man 
means that man in his present state possesses a 
material body. As a corporeal being man is de- 
pendent on matter and is subject to the natural 
forces and natural laws. 

c) "MORAL." 

By this term in the definition is meant that man 
is capable of right and wrong action whether in 
thought or deed. It is, indeed, by this peculiar 
endowment that man is a person. Morality is 
something more than mere intelligence, as the 
power of feeling, understanding and volition, 
which intelligence even the animals in a certain 
degree possess. Animals lack entirely the moral 
power. Morality is dependent on intelligence. 
By virtue of his moral endowment man is pre- 
eminently a religious being, and must be a wor- 
shipper, whether it be the worship of the only 
true God or of idols. To be irreligious, therefore, 



65 
is unnatural, a resisting of man's own noblest and 
highest nature. 

Morality is a grand and most glorious spiritual 
endowment by which man is highly elevated above 
the animals and is related to God as a child to his 
father, and on account thereof entitled to the 
right of heirship in the kingdom of heaven. 

d) "INTELLIGENT." 

By intelligence is meant that power with which 
all spirits are endowed, and which generally mani- 
fests itself as feelings, thoughts and volition. In- 
telligence is a necessary basis for a moral faculty. 
Among intelligent beings the intelligence varies 
both in degree and kind. Thus the intelligence 
of man is far superior to that of the animals. But 
even among the individuals of the human race 
we find a great difference in regard to intelligence. 

As a moral intelligent being man is dependent 
on spiritual things and is subject to spiritual laws. 
Moral intelligence constitutes personality. As 
such man was originally granted the power of 
dominion over the world and, therefore, dominates 
all below himself and becomes the interpreter of 
matter and history, and at the summit of his 
power of intelligence, knowledge and wisdom, 
elevates himself so as to become a true philoso- 



66 
pher, who explains the universe in the light of 
faith in God as He has revealed Himself in the 
Word and in nature and, who also, in the same 
light of faith, explains his own invisible ego. 

Man, then, is a being of complex nature, earthly 
and spiritual. These natures we will now more 
fully consider under the following main divisions : 

I. The Body of Man. 
II. The Spirit of Man. 

The doctrine or science of man as a person we 
call Anthropology. The word anthropology is de- 
rived from the Greek words anthropos (avQpuTros) 
man, and logos (Aoyos) doctrine. Anthropology 
divides itself into two parts in accordance with 
the two constituent elements of man, namely mat- 
ter and spirit ; hence the two doctrines Somatology 
and Pneumatology. 



THE BODY. 



QUESTIONS. 

1 What is somatology ? 

2 Give derivation and meaning of word. 

3 What is the essence of the human body? 

4 What makes the human body grow ? 

5 On what data can we explain the origin of the 
human body? 

6 How was the first human body created ? 

7 What high ideas should we entertain as to the origi- 
nal essence and form of the human body? 

8 What does the expression "living souP mean ? 

9 Whence the female body? 

10 Relate the story of the creation of the first woman. 

11 Give the names of our first parents. 

12 Do we need to feel ashamed of our first parents with 
respect to their origin ? 

13 Did our first parents enter upon life as we do ? 

14 What is the difference as to the mode of creation be- 
tween our first parents and ourselves, their off- 
spring ? 

15 Can we explain the origin of human life and the 
operation of its principle or cause? 

16 What do we know, however, as to the cause and ex- 
istence of a newborn babe? 



70 

17 Has the will power anything to do with the develop- 
ment of the body in its first stages, so that we could 
will to grow? 

18 From what matter in the human organism is the 
body nurtured and maintained ? 

19 What do we call the process by means of which the 
different parts of the body receive from the blood 
their respective elements and are kept in order ? 

20 Does it matter what we eat and drink and how 
much? 

21 Ought we, therefore, to regulate our diet? Why? 

22 Has human intelligence anything to do in regard to 
assimilation ? How ? 

23 Has the life principle, the spirit as such, anything at 
all to do with assimilation? How? 

24 Which are the principal organs of respiration ? 

25 What can you state as to the necessity of air for 
human life? 

26 Which are the principal organs and auxiliaries in the 
circulation of the blood ? 

27 Is the blood "the life of the body"? 

28 What is the cause of the life of the body? 

29 Where in the body is the life principle particularly 
located ? 

30 'What is the soul's chief desire with respect to the 
body? 

31 Which are the principal organs of digestion and ex- 
cretion ? 

32 Explain their respective functions. 

33 Does matter in any way enter the spirit? 

34 May, however, that which we eat and drink affect the 
spirit ? How ? 



71 

35 Which are the principal organs of the nervous sys- 
tem? 

36 In what relation does the nervous system stand to 
the snirit? 

37 Which are the most important nerves with respect to 
the body itself ? 

38 What service do they render the spirit? 

39 Which are the most important nerves with respect to 
the acquisition of knowledge? 

40 What can you state as to the brain and the heart in 
their relation to the faculties ? 

41 Have the size and the weight of the brain anything 
to do with the power of intelligence ? Explain. 

42 Is the brain simply an organ in the service of the 
spirit, or can the brain itself think, feel, and will? 
Why? 

43 What constitutes the flesh of the body? 

44 Describe the muscles. 

45 Which are the most important muscles? 

46 Which muscles are most important for the use of the 
spirit in its acquisition of knowledge ? 

47 What is meant by voluntary muscles? By involun- 
tary muscles? 

48 What is the skeleton ? Explain its development and 
services. 

49 Into how many parts is the skeleton generally divid- 
ed? 

50 How many bones are there in a full-grown human 
body? 

51 Which are the most important bones? 

52 Name the parts of the body most important in the 
active service of the spirit. 



72 

53 Explain the use of the hand. 

54 Of the foot. 

55 Of the head. 

56 Of the eye. 

57 Of the ear. 

58 Of the nose. 

59 Of the tongue. 

60 Of the skin. 

61 Name the generally acknowledged races of mankind. 

62 What is considered to be the cause of different colors 
of the skin ? 

63 Is the difference essential or accidental? 




THE BODY OF MAN. 
SOMATOLOGY. 

The doctrine concerning the human body we 
call somatology. The word somatology comes 
from the Greek words soma (o-fyia), body, and 
logos (Adyos), doctrine. 

THE ORIGIN AND ESSENCE OF THE 
HUMAN BODY. 

From empirical knowledge we know that the 
human body consists of matter, partly solids and 
partly fluids. By virtue of the vital principle of 
man in union with an embryo, the quintessence 
of matter, this embryo is gradually organized and 
developed into one of the most perfect bodies 
found in the material world. 

The origin of the human body we can find only 
by means of revelation as it is given in the Holy 
Scriptures. These are established sources of 
truth, since even the Son of God has acknowledged 
them as such. And without these sources our 



74 
knowledge concerning the origin of man as well 
as of the whole world must for ever rest on mere 
hypotheses. On that sacred source, then, we will 
rely for the historical data concerning the origin 
of the human body. Thus we learn that "The 
Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground." 1 
Now this dust or matter had nothing to do with 
any of the already created or organized beings 
as such. It was not from a plant nor from an 
animal that God formed man's body, but directly 
from the dust of the ground. Of the composition 
of that dust, we know nothing. Of course, this 
formation could not have been a mechanical one; 
it was a creative act of God. As to the kind of 
matter, however, it is but reasonable and right 
to suppose that God took of the very best and 
purest in forming a body for the spirit which was 
to bear the image of its Maker. 

The body of the first man, Adam, must have 
been a most beautiful and perfect organism. At 
the very moment God made man, the body re- 
ceived the spirit, and by virtue of that spirit 
"man became a living soul," that is, a spirit- 
embodied being, "for, the body apart from the 
spirit is dead." 2 



1) Genesis 2: 7. 2) James 2: 26. 



75 
MALE AND FEMALE. 

In the beginning God created a pair : "male and 
female created he them." 1 The matter of which 
God made woman's body was a part of man's al- 
ready organized body. The record of the creation 
of the woman is very interesting and reads as 
follows: "The Lord God caused a deep sleep to 
fall upon man, and he slept, and he took one of 
his ribs, and closed up the flesh instead thereof, 
and the rib which the Lord God had taken from 
the man, made he a woman and brought her unto 
the man." 2 

The first woman also must have been a beauti- 
ful being. And how could she be otherwise? 
This we can infer even from our present time. 
For as we know, the ages have not improved or 
elevated the human body but rather impaired it. 
Yet we find in mankind the most beautiful exam- 
ples of both male and female, and particularly of 
the latter sex. Indeed, Adam must have felt 
delighted when God presented to him his longed- 
for associate one morning in Paradise; when for 
the first time he beheld his wife, and possibly with 
an innocent smile of joy and wonder upon his 
face exclaimed: "This is now bone of my bones 
and flesh of my flesh." 3 In her he now found a 



1) Genesis 1: 27. 2) Genesis 2: 21—22. 3) Genesis 2: 23. 



76 
congenial associate who could fully sympathize 
with his two natures, spirit and body. 

From this first pair the whole human family 
has come. We may, therefore, feel proud of our 
first parents' origin and essence. 

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FIRST 

PAIR AND THEIR OFFSPRING AS TO 

THE MODE OF CREATION. 

There is a difference in the mode of creation 
of the first pair and their offspring. As to the first 
pair, we are told by sacred history that Adam 
and Eve started upon their life career as fully 
matured beings, as far as the body was concerned, 
and ready from the very beginning to have domin- 
ion over the world and to replenish the same. 
That is to say, they were no mere children as 
we are when we for the first time behold the light 
of the world. 

It is an established fact that a human being 
having his origin in parents develops from a seed 
called protoplasm, which contains the vital prin- 
ciple and the material from which the body is 
organized. How the two natures of a human 
being unite and how they behave in that seed we 
do not know. This is a holy mystery which we 
may never be able to explain. Of course, the 



77 
scientists have tried over and over again to solve 
this mystery and to explain the origin of life in 
a cell or a nucleated mass of protoplasm. But 
the only thing they can be sure of is what their 
eye can see through powerful microscopes, after 
the conception has taken place. Much more, how- 
ever, lies beyond the reach of the human eye 
and even beyond the strongest magnifying lens 
of the microscope. But this much we do know 
by experience, that male and female are necessary 
agents in producing that complex seed from which 
the human offspring develops, and also that the 
female, the mother, is the sole keeper and pre- 
server of that being until the time of birth. 

Upon the vital principle the individual body 
from the very beginning of its life is dependent 
for its growth. It would be very interesting to 
know what part each of the two agents, male and 
female, furnishes to the composition of the com- 
plex nature of a new human being. But as such 
an inquiry would be largely speculative, we must 
refrain from it. 

The creation of the first pair was caused by a 
direct act of God. The creation of the offspring 
of the first pair, as far as the conception is con- 
cerned, depends entirely on the parents and 
should, therefore, be controlled by their best 
moral intelligence and in accordance with divine 



78 
and human justice. If not, man will act worse 
than a brute, which follows its instinct as its 
natural guide and law in this respect, i 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY. 

In developing, the body grows by virtue of the 
indwelling spirit until a certain culmination has 
been reached. In its first stages the body grows 
without our willing it. We cannot add one cubit 
unto our stature by our intelligence. The only 
thing we can do, consciously or unconsciously, 
is to take nourishment, and in the later years of 
life provide for and take care of the body. Nor 
have we any power over that most wonderful 
process, the assimilation of food, by which the 
material intended for the different parts of the 
body, as bones, muscles, nails, hair, etc., is sep- 
arated from one common fluid, the blood, and 
brought to its place. These things are beyond 
our ability to control. 

From the blood and by means of its circulation 
the whole bodily organism is nurtured and main- 
tained. But the question naturally arises, What 
is it, in the process of assimilation, that builds 
up the bones, the muscles, the nerves, the brain, 
the skin, etc., carries the necessary elements to 
their respective places and refuses to take up cer- 



79 
tain elements because they are not wanted? Is 
it the soul, or what? 

As to the place or point at which this selection 
of material occurs, it is generally supposed that 
this is "where the arteries terminate and the 
veins begin." But as to the cause, it is asserted 
by some that "nobody knows." Others, again, 
believe that the cause must be an intelligent pow- 
er, probably the soul. 

But assimilation takes place in all organized 
bodies, not only in the human body but also in 
the animal body and in plants. Now, the life- 
principle of plants we believe to be non-intelligent. 
Hence this process may be carried on without a 
special intelligent power in the being itself. But 
what is it? We might just as well ask, what it 
is that makes the body grow just so far in stature 
and no farther. Why does not the body keep on 
growing in length, for instance, and the tree 
keep on growing up to the clouds? The answer 
we will find, I think, in the Creators own design, 
in His supernatural and natural laws. Thus we 
will find the answer as to assimilation not in the 
vital principle itself or its intelligence, but in 
God's natural laws, particularly the law of chem- 
ical affinity. Thus the elements which constitute 
bones will in the bones take up from the blood 
only such elements as will combine with them, 



80 
just so much and no more. The surplus of such 
elements are allowed to circulate in the body until 
needed in the bony structure of the body. The 
same holds true of other organs, as nerves, mus- 
cles, etc. 

These nutritious elements depend on the food 
we take, and to some extent we can regulate them 
by a proper diet. Because of the wear and tear 
of our body we always need new supply for it, 
and from this supply in the blood the assimilation 
of the human body steadily draws. A lack of any 
of the elements necessary in the nurture and main- 
tenance of the body or an oversupply may cause 
disorder in the organism and imperil the soul. 
But with the assimilation itself human intelligence 
has nothing to do. Yet without the human spirit 
there would be no assimilation in the body. For 
as soon as the vital principle is united with matter 
assimilation takes place, and this without any 
intelligence whatsoever, as far as the vital prin- 
ciple is concerned. The vital principle, then, in 
conformity with the law of chemical affinity, is 
the cause of assimilation, in the same fashion as 
two volumes of hydrogen will unite with one 
volume of oxygen, no more and no less, for the 
formation of water. 



81 



THE ORGANS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE 
HUMAN BODY. 

The human body is composed of different mem- 
bers or organs which have separate functions, 
and yet these are so intimately related to each 
other that the body as a whole constitutes a won- 
derful system of interdependence. And as to the 
human body the old saying holds true that if one 
member suffers, all the members suffer with it. 

We will now briefly consider, one by one, the 
different organs and their respective functions. 

1. Respiration. 

The lungs are the principal organs of respira- 
tion. To these the nose, the mouth, and the bron- 
chial tubes are necessary auxiliaries. 

Atmospheric air, especially oxygen, is absolutely 
necessary for the life of a corporeal being. It is 
necessary not only for the body but for the spirit 
as well, because oxygen or air serves as a medium 
for the spirit's union with the body. 

It is the function of the respiratory organs to 
supply the heart with air and the action of the 
heart depends on this supply of new and fresh 
air. 

6 



82 

2. Circulation of the Blood. 

The principal organ in the circulation of the 
blood is the heart, the mainspring of bodily life. 
Its auxiliaries are the arteries, the veins and the 
capillaries. 

The blood is the finest visible matter in the 
body. From this source the whole body receives 
the material of which it is built up, nurtured and 
maintained. Some have called the blood "the 
fountain of life." This is indeed a very strik- 
ing figure of speech. Of course, the blood is not 
life, but the vital principle, the spirit, has its 
seat in the blood, and particularly in the heart. 

3. Digestion and Excretion. 

The blood depends on material food taken from 
the animal, the vegetable and the inorganic king- 
doms, from solids, fluids and gases. A scarcity 
or a total lack of food is detrimental to the whole 
body or only certain parts thereof, and may at 
last be the cause of death. Nourishing the body 
is therefore one of the soul's first and last desires. 
It is true, even though the devil uttered it, that 
"all that a man hath will he give for his soul," 1 
that is, that it may live in the body. 

The principal organ of the digestive system is 

1) Job 2: 4. 



83 
the stomach. The auxiliaries are the mouth, the 
intestinal canal and glands. After the food has 
been digested there remains in parts of the body 
some material which cannot be digested and is 
unfit for blood. These unfit materials must be 
expelled from the body. To perform this work 
is the function of the excretive organs. These 
organs are, in addition to the digestive organs, 
mainly the kidneys and the bladder. 

The material food from which the blood is 
formed does not enter the vital principle, but 
it may affect the same to a very great extent, so 
that the spirit may experience a pleasant or an 
unpleasant sensation. Only that which is imma- 
terial or spiritual will enter the vital principle 
and become a spiritual possession. The spirit 
craves for its spiritual life spiritual food and for 
its bodily life material food. 

4. The Nerves. 

The principal organs of the nervous system are 
the brain and the spinal marrow. Their auxiliary 
organs are especially the sensory and the motor 
nerves. The nerves are fine white or gray threads, 
and are very numerous. They are closely con- 
nected with the spinal marrow and the brain. 
Most of these nerves are wholly inclosed in bones, 



84 
are central channels of sensory and motive power, 
and are obedient to the spirit. 

By means of the nervous system the spirit is 
in correspondence with its own body and the ma- 
terial world round about it. The nerves that play 
the most important part in the body are the sen- 
sory nerves and the motor nerves. By means of 
the former the impressions from the external 
world are received by the spirit, and by means 
of the latter the spirit lays hold on the muscles 
and causes the body to move and act according to 
the dictates of the will. 

The most important nerves, as far as the knowl- 
edge of the external world and of the body itself 
is concerned, are those connected with the skin, 
the tongue, or the mouth, the nose, the ear, the 
eye, and the stomach. When a nerve connected, 
for instance, with the eye is killed, the spirit can 
no longer see, and its correspondence with the 
world through the eye is for ever cut off. The 
same holds true of the other organs and their 
senses. 

The faculty of the understanding, especially in 
the act of memorizing and in profound thinking, 
occupies more the brain; and the faculty of the 
sensibility more the heart. Hence the reason for 
headache after long and profound thinking, as 
well as the experience of a pleasant or unpleasant 



85 
feeling in that muscle which we call the heart, 
according to the intelligence of pleasant or sad 
news. Each muscle possesses at least one nerve 
connected with the brain, and hence we can locate 
any place or muscle affected. The brain, then, 
serves as headquarters of the spirit's intelligence^ 
and the heart as the headquarters of sensations 
or feelings ; both head and heart in unison consti- 
tute the headquarters of the will-power. 

The size of the brain has, no doubt, something 
to do with man's intelligence. A post mortem 
examination of the brains of some great men has 
shown this to be a fact. These men have had 
unusually heavy and large brains. Thus, for in- 
stance, it has been ascertained that the brain of 
Ben Butler weighed 62 ounces, that of Daniel Web- 
ster 58 ounces. The maximum weight of those 
examined has been found to be about 64 ounces, 
the minimum weight about 20 ounces ; the average 
weight of the brain of the male 49% ounces and 
of the female 44 ounces. Less intelligent persons, 
it has been proven, have had a smaller size and 
lesser weight of brain. Yet, be this as it may, 
the brain has not per se the power to feel, under- 
stand, or will, but is simply an organ or a means 
in the service of the spirit as long as it dwells in 
the body. The brain is simply matter, and matter 
is non-intelligent. 



86 



5. The Muscles. 



The muscles, generally considered, constitute 
the flesh of the body. There are small muscles 
and large ones. A muscle is composed of delicate 
fibres. Some of these fibres are so fine that only 
by the aid of a microscope can they be seen. Every 
muscle possesses at least one artery which conveys 
to it the blood for its nutrition. The muscles are 
interwoven with a great number of nerves. They 
are generally fastened to the bones by means of 
tendons. The rapidity with which the muscles 
can be contracted and extended is most remark- 
able. 

The muscles are organs both of motion and 
locomotion. They are of two kinds, namely, volun- 
tary and involuntary. Voluntary muscles are 
those which are under the control of the will, 
involuntary muscles are those which are not under 
the control of the will. The only involuntary 
muscles we have are those constituting the heart. 
The eyelids are only partly involuntary. 

6. The Bones. 

The bony structure of man is called the skele- 
ton. This constitutes the hard part of the body. 
The skeleton is the framework of man's body, and 



87 
serves as a leverage and a basis of support for 
the muscles and as a protection for the same. 

In the first stages of their development, the 
bones are not hard. They are, then, as in the 
embryo, soft matter which soon takes the form 
of cartilage and fibrous membranes, and at last 
develops into hard bones. 

Some bones are connected with each other by 
means of cartilage and some by sutures, as the 
bones of the skull, or they are grown together 
so as to be almost immovable separately, others, 
again, are connected by tendons or fibrous mem- 
branes, and are thus easily moved separately. 

The skeleton is generally divided into three 
parts, namely, the Head, the Trunk, and the 
Limbs. The bones and joints play a more im- 
portant part in the formation of the walls of the 
thoracic than of the abdominal cavity. The bones 
are many in number and of various shapes and 
sizes. There are 207 bones in the human body, 
besides the teeth, which, in the fullgrown person, 
number 32. 

With reference to the body itself and its ser- 
vices, the most important bones are those forming 
the skull which protects the brain; the trunk 
which protects the intestines, the heart and the 
lungs; the limbs, of which the legs serve as a 
vehicle of the body; the arms as the protectors 



83 
of the whole external body. With reference to 
the spirit the most important parts of the bony- 
structure are the head and the limbs. 



THE PARTS OF THE BODY MOST IMPOR- 
TANT IN THE ACTIVE SERVICE 
OF THE SPIRIT. 

1. The Hand. 

The hand is peculiar to human beings. It is 
a very powerful and interesting agent in aiding 
the expression of thought in spoken language and 
as a natural complement to the expression of 
feelings and volitions. As a rule, however, the 
gestures of the hand are expressions of the facul- 
ty of sensibility. 

The hands are used to express many different 
things. Thus, for instance, we express our friend- 
ship by grasping firmly another's hand. In the 
hour of mirth we clap our hands together ; in the 
moment of sorrow or shame we cover our face 
with our hands as if we would hide ourselves 
from the sight of others. By different positions 
of the hand we express fear or horror or anguish, 
satisfaction or dissatisfaction. By the hand we 
give sign to our fellow men to approach or depart, 
and in times of great need we stretch out our 



89 
hands asking for help, or with uplifted or clasped 
hands we implore help of the Almighty. 

In most of our material achievements the hand 
is a very active agent. What is there in the ma- 
terial world within human reach that human 
hands have not touched? There would be very 
little instrumental music were it not for the hands 
that play, and no accomplishments in either paint- 
ing, drawing or architecture. And what would 
we have had of recorded history and science from 
olden times up to the present day without the aid 
of the human hand? Tradition we can no longer 
rely upon. No wonder, then, that artists have 
made a special study of the hand. It is, indeed, 
a wonderful thing in itself, and some philosophers 
have even attributed man's superiority more to 
the hand than to the spirit itself. 

2. The Foot. 

The foot also is a very active agent in the ser- 
vice of the spirit. This is shown in various ways. 
A person who is happy or who is very industrious 
moves quickly and the feet seem very light. A 
sad person, again, or one who is engaged in pro- 
found thinking, takes very slow steps and may at 
times even stop or forget to walk. A man of firm 
convictions will walk steadily; a person of weak 



90 
moral character will walk uneasily. "A worthless 
person shuffleth or speaketh with his feet." 1 

When the spirit of man feels his unworthiness 
before his Maker or his superiors and seeks mercy, 
he bends his knees in supplication. 

3. The Head. 

The expression of the face of man and especially 
of the eyes, the different positions of the head 
and the formation of the outlines of the mouth, 
are a great and interesting study, in as much 
as these are expressions of the spirit. 

When a human being sanctions anything, he 
generally nods his head gently, when displeased 
at anything, he will shake his head more or less 
violently. In derision he will lean his head first 
to one side and hold it there for a moment and 
then to the other side. Sometimes the mouth will 
be closed tightly and immediately opened wide, 
and perhaps burst into a jolly or scornful laugh. 
Sometimes one will bite his teeth or lips, his face 
may turn pale or red all according to the feelings 
of the heart. 

4. The Eye. 

Through the eyes man beholds the material 
world and acquires the largest amount of knowl- 

1) Proverbs 6: 13. 



91 
edge, whether it be by direct observation or by 
reading. 

A wonderful field is open to the spirit by means 
of the eyes. They are the windows of his earthly 
tabernacle. The eyes also serve him both as a 
microscope and as a telescope. Before him lies 
the created world : the darkness and the light, the 
great expanse of waters and the continents and 
the islands, the firmanent with its azure heavens 
and silvery clouds, the rainbow, and innumerable 
stars, suns and moons; the vegetable kingdom 
with its wonderful herbs, grasses, flowers, and 
trees; the animal kingdom with its fishes, birds, 
reptiles, beasts of burden, and all the wild ani- 
mals; the mineral kingdom with its wonderful 
formations of great and small mountain peaks and 
ridges, beautiful metals and stones. Think of all 
the visible worlds ! And consider also the works 
of man himself which he has wrought during all 
the centuries ! Think of the great expositions of 
the world which present to the eye the architect- 
ure, sculpture, paintings, and all kinds of inven- 
tions, and think of the great works of literature ! 
What a source of knowledge to the immortal 
spirit! All this is open to the spirit of man by 
means of the eye. 

In the day of spiritual sunshine the eyes sparkle 
with joy; in the day of darkness the eyes are 



92 
moistened by tears. The tears are generally ex- 
pressions of deep feeling. The character of a 
person is often reflected in the eyes. Thus, for 
instance, an honest person can look you squarely 
in the eyes without flinching, but a dishonest 
spirit prefers to look askance, or with one eye 
shut, or with both staring. "He that shutteth 
his eyes deviseth froward things," "a high look 
and a proud heart" 1 are old and reliable proverbs. 

In connection with the different formations of 
the face and the attitude of the head the eye, 
indeed, plays a most wonderful role in the great 
drama of human life. There is a great power 
revealed through the human eye. Even fierce, 
wild beasts cower before man's power and mastery 
as reflected in his eyes. 

5. The Ear. 

By means of the ear the spirit of man perceives 
sounds not only from the material world but also 
from the spiritual world. We hear the whistling 
of the wind, the rustling of the trees, the thunder 
of the clouds, the roaring of the ocean waves, the 
chirping of the birds, the neighing of the horse; 
we hear the human voice in speech and in song 
and the music produced by means of musical in- 
struments. The causes of all the sounds may be 

1) Proverbs 21: 4. 



93 
either natural forces or intelligent beings, as ani- 
mals, men, angels, or the Almighty God. 

The most significant sound that human ear can 
perceive is articulated sound, or spoken language. 
The spoken language has a direct effect upon the 
spirit. So important, therefore, are the words 
spoken that they shall serve as witnesses for or 
against us at the very judgment throne of God. 
For it is written: "Every idle word that men 
shall speak, they shall give account thereof in the 
day of judgment. For by thy words thou shalt 
be justified and by thy words thou shalt be con- 
demned." 1 The same may be said of written 
words, though we perceive those words by means 
of the eye. Our words are indeed spiritual seed, 
bearing fruit of its kind, whenever sown in human 
minds. We need, therefore, give heed to the 
Master's words: "If any man hath ears to hear, 
let him hear," but also : "Take heed what ye hear." 2 

The ear, then, serves the spirit only as a receiv- 
er of intelligence. Comparing the ear with the 
eye, we find that the former is only a receiver 
while the latter is not only a receiver but also to 
some extent a transmitter of intelligence. For 
surely the eye can "speak" by its peculiar look, 
especially with the aid of the muscles of the face, 
and that without even a word being uttered. 



1) Matt. 12: 36—37. 2) Matt. 11: 15; Mark. 4: 24. 



94 

Animals seem to possess the power of express- 
ing themselves by means of the ear. Look at a 
horse, for instance, when he wants to be let alone 
eating his ration of hay or oats! To show his 
dislike or make protest to his teammate he needs 
only to throw his ears backward. 



6. The Nose. 

The nose serves as a respiratory duct, and as 
the organ of smell. By this organ the human 
spirit perceives the nature or condition of things 
by their scent or odor. It serves as a protective 
and preservative agent partly for the body and 
partly for the spirit. As to the body, man needs 
to examine the food before he takes it into the 
mouth, because unwholesome food is detrimental 
to the whole body. As to the spirit, it cannot 
remain in the body without fresh air. Man gen- 
erally breathes through the nose. By this organ, 
then, the spirit is able to provide for itself and 
the body fresh air and select wholesome food. 

The activity of the spirit in breathing through 
the nose has cause expressions like the following : 
"The spirit of God is in my nostrils'', "Man whose 
spirit is in his nostrils." 1 



1) Job 27: 3. Isa.65:5. 



95 

7. The Tongue. 

By this organ we taste of earthly things and 
thus learn whether they are pleasing to our palate 
or not, whether they are salty or bitter, sweet 
or sour, etc. With reference to food the tongue 
is a complement to the nose. But tasting is not 
the only function of this organ. It is also the 
main organ of speech, and is thus very important 
in the service of the spirit. The tongue is a most 
powerful instrument for good and evil. This fact 
is brought out in similes in which the tongue is 
likened unto an unbridled horse, when the tongue 
is not duly controlled by the spirit; to the rudder 
of a ship; to a small fire which if let loose will 
burn a great forest. By means of the tongue 
"cometh forth blessing and cursing" 1 according 
to the state or condition of the spirit. The tongue 
is very often the servant of the innermost part 
of the spirit, namely, the heart. Hence the say- 
ing : "Out of the abundance of the heart his mouth 
speaketh." 2 

8. The Skin. 

The skin is the organ of touch. It serves as 
a protective agent for the whole body with refer- 
ence to the external world. By means of the skin 
we learn whether objects are warm or cold, hard 

1) James 3: 3—10. 2) Matt. 12: 34. 



96 
or soft, light or heavy, etc. The most sensitive 
parts of the skin we find in the tips of the fingers 
and at the point of the tongue. 

The color of the skin has given rise to the classi- 
fication of different races of mankind. Thus we 
notice the Caucasian race, the Mongolian, the 
Ethiopian, the American and the Malayan races, 
or in other words, the White, the Yellow, the 
Black, the Red, and the Brown races, respective- 
ly. Climatic influence of long standing, of 
thousands of years, is, no doubt, the principal 
cause of this difference in the color of the skin. 
This difference is, therefore, accidental rather 
than essential. Originally there must have been 
only one color of the skin, the human family hav- 
ing one blood. (Acts 17 : 26) . 

These, then, the hand, the foot, the head, the 
eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue, and the skin, 
are the most important parts of the body as means 
of the spirit in its dealings with its own body 
and the material world in general. Man posses- 
ses, as we have seen, certain distinctive anatomi- 
cal and physical characteristics. He is, for in- 
stance, the only earthly being that can walk or 
stand erect. He is the only earthly being that 
can smile and laugh. He is the only one who has 
a perfect hand. His whole body is a most sym- 
metrical composition of organized members, and 



97 
all the parts of the body and their functions form 
an organic whole. Such, then, is the temple in 
which our spirit, the ego, lives in this world. 

We have now learned, to some extent at least, 
what the human body is, how it is organized, and 
how it lives. We have seen also that the body is 
a very important complement to the spirit. We 
will now study the spirit, the life principle of 
man, and learn what it is, how it is organized, 
and how it lives. 




THE SPIRIT. 



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QUESTIONS. 

1 What is pneumatology ? 

2 Give the derivation of the word. 

3 Is the human spirit of divine origin? 

4 How do we know? 

5 State what yon know concerning the creation of man 
according to the Scriptures. 

6 Where should we seek for the image of God, in the 
spirit of man or in the body ? 

7 Does the spirit of man consist of God's absolute es- 
sence ? 

8 Why? 

9 What can you state as to the mode of creation with 
respect to man and the animals? 

10 Do we know anything concerning the form of a 
spirit ? 

11 By what analogy can we best comprehend a spirit? 
Explain. 

12 What is the original meaning of the word spirit? 

13 What attributes would you ascribe to the human 
spirit ? 



PART II. 

THE SPIRIT OF MAN. 

PNEUMATOLOGY. 

The doctrine concerning the human spirit we 
call pneumatology. The word pneumatology 
comes from the Greek words pneuma (irvev^a) f 
spirit, and logos (Myos) t doctrine. 

THE ORIGIN AND ESSENCE OF THE HU- 
MAN SPIRIT. 

The human spirit is of divine origin. This 
truth is brought out plainly by the Holy Scrip- 
tures, without which the origin as well as the es- 
sence of the human spirit never could be known 
with certainty. The description of the creation 
of the human spirit we find especially in the fol- 
lowing excerpts: "And God said, Let us make 

man in our image, after our likeness" 

"And God created man in His own image, male 

and female, created He them" 1 "And the 

Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground 

1) Genesis 1: 26, 27. 



103 
and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; 
and man became a living soul." 1 

From these passages we learn, 1) that man 
was made in the image of God, after His likeness, 
and, 2) that he received from the Creator directly 
the breath of life (Q^H niDEfy literally: breath 
of lives, Genesis 2:7), that is, the vital principle, 
by which he became a living soul (fpn E^BjIa 
literally: for soul of life, Genesis 2: 7), a spirit- 
embodied being. 

Now this image, likeness, must of course be 
sought in the human spirit and not in the body, 
because God is spirit. God's breathing into the 
nostrils of the body was, of course, an act of crea- 
tion, wherefore the human spirit is a created 
spirit. The spirit of man, therefore, cannot con- 
sist entirely of the absolute essence of God's be- 
ing. Yet the very mode of creating man suggests 
that by God's breathing directly into man the 
latter received something of the divine nature. 
The relation of the human spirit to its Creator 
is also found in the fact that at the spirit's de- 
parture from its material body the spirit "returns 
unto God who gave it." 2 And even after the fall, 
the spirit of man is acknowledged by the Creator 
Himself to be His spirit, His image (Genesis 6: 



1) Genesis 2: 7. 2) Ecclesiastes 12: 7. 



104 
3). In the creation of the animals and the ma- 
terial world, God spoke to matter, and by means 
of His almighty word, which touched the fluids or 
solids, the animals became "living souls," that is, 
pneuma-corporeal beings. There was, therefore, 
in the very mode of creation, a great difference 
in creating man and the beasts. By means of the 
word of God the animals received their spirit or 
vital principle, and by means of the direct in- 
spiration of God, the breath of God, man received 
his spirit. Thus man received more of the ful- 
ness of God's breath than the other beings lower 
than himself, and, besides, man was made in the 
image of God. The essence of the human spirit, 
then, is indeed of divine nature. And the spirit 
of man, being made in the image of God, must 
be personal and immortal. 

As to the form of the human spirit per se we 
know absolutely nothing. Yet it is in this world 
localized in a material body, and when it departs 
from this organism the body dies. As to the ap- 
pearance it must be light, for "God is light and 
no darkness is in Him." 1 The spirit of man is 
also called "the lamp of the Lord." 2 It is worthy 
of notice that the words of many different lan- 
guages, modern or ancient, denoting the spirit, 
convey the idea of air or wind. Surely the spirit 

1) 1 John 1: 5. 2) Proverbs 20: 27. 



105 
of man is not air, for the spirit is an immaterial 
being, and air is matter. 

The nearest we can come to grasping "the idea 
of a spirit in general is by way of comparison. 
The idea of spirit is best compared with the idea 
of air. And what are, then, the associations of 
these ideas? Let us see. The air is transparent, 
invisible: so is the spirit; air is a powerful or 
pleasing element, as a powerful hurricane or 
cyclone, or a gentle breath: so is the spirit, a 
great and wonderful power in the world; air 
is a very thin and light substance, it penetrates 
and permeates everything, its exact boundaries 
cannot be fixed or stated : the same may be said of 
the spirit; air is a mechanical mixture of chiefly 
two elementary gases, namely, oxygen and nitro- 
gen : so we may find at last that the spirit consists 
of two wonderful powers, the soul and the heart ; 
the air which lies nearest to the earth is heavier 
than that which is higher up, as the ether: so 
we may find that the soul has more to do with 
material things and the heart of the spirit more 
with spiritual, heavenly and eternal things. 

There are, consequently, many things associated 
with the idea of air by which the idea of spirit 
may be explained and better understood. The 
original meaning of the word spirit, as we find 
it in the many languages of the world, ancient 



106 
and modern, is breath or wind. And even the 
Son of God, when explaining the works of the 
Holy Spirit, compared it to the wind and its 
workings, saying: "The wind bloweth where it 
listeth and thou hearest the voice thereof, but 
knoweth not whence it cometh or whither it go- 
eth: so is every one that is born of the spirit." 1 
The air is material, however, and is subject to 
the laws of nature, but the spirit is immaterial 
and is entirely subject to the laws of the spiritual 
world. Let us, then, try to grasp the idea of spirit 
by this analogy, and at the same time remember 
that essence of the human spirit is still much 
finer than the quintessence of the finest ether. 

As a personal and immortal being, of divine 
nature, and as the image of God, the human 
spirit must be moral and, therefore, rational, self- 
determining and responsible. These are very im- 
portant and essential attributes, which make man 
truly great. 

The essence of the human spirit contains and 
constitutes the vital principle, or the cause of life. 
At some particular center of this essence the is- 
sues of life must originate. By virtue of the life 
principle, the spiritual essence becomes a very 
fertile soil, which by proper cultivation may yield 
the most beneficial harvests for time and eternity. 

1) John 3: 8. 



MEMORY. 



QUESTIONS. 

1 What is memory ? 

2 What are the three functions of the spirit in mem- 
ory? 

3 Does memory deal only with past impressions? 

4 Is memory a faculty like sensibility, understanding 
and will ? 

5 In what relation does memory stand to those facul- 
ties? 

6 Is knowledge innate in the spirit or must it be ac- 
quired ? 

7 How is knowledge first acquired ? 

8 What is the function of the spirit in memory with 
respect to first impressions? 

9 What is this function likened unto ? 

10 Could there ever be any expressions, were there no 
impressions ? 

11 Are there, however, a few fundamental impressions 
which are not acquired? Explain. 

12 What is the second function of the spirit in memory? 

13 Does the spirit elaborate or change the impressions 
by the retentive function? 

14 What faculty particularly develops the impressions? 



110 

15 In what part of the mind do we keep our spiritual 
possessions ? 

16 Are all impressions retained? 

17 What do we call the impressions which are retained 
and which are, therefore, capable of being recalled? 

18 What is association of ideas ? 

19 What other name can you give to this power of the 
spirit ? 

20 How does this power work? 

21 How does perception aid this power? 

22 What faculties particularly deal with association of 
ideas, and how ? 

23 Is it possible to establish special laws for every indi- 
vidual with respect to memory? 

24 Are all individuals alike with respect to the power 
of memory and its possession of ideas ? 

25 Are there general laws, however, which may be ap- 
plied to all normally endowed persons ? 

26 What relation, with respect to suggestions, may we 
find in the association of ideas? 

27 Has the moral inclination of the individual anything 
to do with the law governing the association of ideas ? 
How? 

28 Has the individual any responsibility as to the work- 
ings of this power? 

29 What, therefore, are the duties of man in this re- 
spect? 

30 By what method can the retents of memory be 
developed and made clear to the mind ? 

31 To what faculties does this work belong? 

32 Can we think without memory? 

33 Is recollection really a work of the memory ? Why ? 



Ill 

34 What, then, constitutes memory? 

35 What natural phenomenon is memory likened unto? 

36 What is the original meaning of the word memory? 

37 To what is the retentivity of memory likened? 

38 What can you state as to the usefulness of memory in 
general ? 

39 What other power besides memory constitutes par 
excellence the most wonderful and useful power of 
the human spirit? 




MEMORY. 

Memory is that innate power of the spirit's 
essence by virtue of which impressions are re- 
ceived into and retained in the spirit, and thence 
represented to the faculties. 

With respect to memory we notice three func- 
tions of the spirit, namely : 

1) to receive into its essence impressions made 
upon it by the faculties of sensibility, under- 
standing and will; 

2) to retain these impressions, and 

3) to reflect them upon the faculties. 

From these functions of the spirit we can 
readily infer that memory deals not only with 
past impressions, but also with impressions of 
the present. For past impressions are conditioned 
by the impressions received during some present 
time. But with respect to past experiences alone 
we are entirely dependent on memory. 

Memory is a unique power of the spirit. It 
cannot be coordinated with or subordinated to 
the faculties: the sensibility, the understanding, 



113 
and the will. It is rather a common field for the 
operation of these faculties in introducing im- 
pressions, as well as a common source from which 
they need to draw material for future thought 
and work. Thus it would be absolutely impos- 
sible for the thinking faculty to carry on a process 
of even the simplest process of reasoning without 
the power of memory. We will now explain the 
functions of the spirit in memory. 

1. The Receptive Function of Memory. 

Originally every individual spirit is a tabula 
rasa with respect to knowledge. Knowledge must 
be acquired. This is done in the first place by 
the faculty of perception and then particularly 
by the thinking faculty. We shall understand 
this more fully after we have considered those 
faculties. Now, the function of the spirit in this 
case is only to receive impressions. The spirit 
may, in this respect, be likened to a photogra- 
pher's sensitive plate on which impressions or 
images are made; or it may be likened to a rich 
soil in which seeds are planted. The seeds (im- 
pressions) having been sown and received by the 
spirit, it becomes the duty of the spirit's activity 
in the faculties to cultivate them and bring them 
out to full bloom. Thus, in return, the spirit will 



114 
be able to furnish the faculties with material for 
future thought, feeling, and volition. 

There are, however, a few fundamental impres- 
sions, ideas, or concepts, which are not acquired, 
but are innate in the spirit. These are the ideas 
of being, space, and duration. These ideas, then, 
we have a priori. 

2. The Retentive Function of Memory. 

The spirit's function in memory is, secondly, 
to retain or keep with its innate power the im- 
pressions acquired. The spirit does not in this 
case elaborate or change the impressions made 
upon it, but simply holds them there. The de- 
velopment or elaboration of the impressions be- 
longs particularly to the thinking faculty. 

How the spirit can retain all the impressions 
is most wonderful, a problem that certainly no 
human being can solve. In the realm of memory, 
then, we will find all our personal spiritual pos- 
sessions acquired from both the material and the 
spiritual world, arranged in a most wonderful 
order. 

As some impressions (percepts) upon the spirit 
are not retained, we will call those impressions 
which are retained retents, and as all retents are 
more or less elaborated by the faculties, we may 
call them concepts, or ideas. 



115 



3. The Association of Ideas, or Memory 
Proper. 

Having received into its essence lasting impres- 
sions, the spirit has the power in itself to reflect 
these impressions upon or to the different facul- 
ties. This reflection of the retents is called the 
association of ideas. If there were nothing 
brought into the spirit and nothing retained, there 
would be nothing to reflect. 

The association of ideas, or the reflection of the 
spiritual essence, works by itself without any 
special effort of the mind, just as the action of 
the physical heart in the circulation of the blood 
works by itself when we are asleep as well as 
when we are awake. In the association of ideas 
one idea first presents itself, and this suggests 
at once another and this, again, still another, and 
so on, ad infinitum. To this activity of the spirit 
the faculty of perception sometimes furnishes a 
special impetus and vividness. When we see or 
hear, or in other ways perceive anything, we are 
immediately reminded of many other things of 
former experiences. 

The association of ideas may be more or less 
under the control of the will and the thinking 
faculty, and may be instantly checked or arrested 
for a longer or shorter time ; and as soon as these 



116 
faculties let go, the association of ideas goes on 
again as usual. Any idea first taken hold of by 
the thinking faculty and the power of the will 
has a tendency to act as a suggestive center for 
other ideas in any particular line of thought. 

It is almost impossible, I think, to establish for 
the association of ideas laws or rules to be fol- 
lowed at all times by every individual. For each in- 
dividual has his own way, and his way is depen- 
dent on his peculiar individuality, education, and 
discipline of mind. A man of education and great 
knowledge lives naturally in a world of ideas so 
rich and great that it is impossible for those less 
educated to comprehend it. An undeveloped per- 
son will by necessity have fewer ideas and will ac- 
cordingly live in a small or inferior world of ideas. 

There are, however, general laws or rules which 
may be applied to all normally endowed indi- 
viduals, and are followed more or less closely by 
all. For instance, it is very natural that the sub- 
stance of one idea should suggest the substance 
of another, that attributes should suggest attri- 
butes, acts suggest acts, and so on, but not abso- 
lutely so, for anything the mind happens to think 
of or wishes to think of will be a leading or sug- 
gestive central idea. 

An idea always stands in some relation to other 
ideas, even if that relation must be sought afar. 



117 
Thus a being, spiritual or material, must by neces- 
sity be thought of as existing either in time or 
in eternity, and (if finite) in place. The sub- 
stance or essence of a being, again, possesses 
either essential or accidental attributes or proper- 
ties by which we are able to distinguish one being 
from another. Again, the idea of being is always 
connected with the idea of form, life, and death; 
with the ideas of cause and effect, means and 
ends. We will, therefore, find in the association 
of ideas certain predominant centers, as being, 
time, eternity, place, substance, attributes, form, 
life, death, cause, effect, means and ends. Any 
of these ideas may easily suggest a corresponding 
likeness or unlikeness in other ideas. 

The association of ideas will also depend upon 
the moral inclination or tenor of a person. A 
morally good person will never allow his thoughts 
to run at large or even to touch upon ideas which 
in the least suggest ideas of a sordid nature. A 
person of immoral character will allow the train 
of ideas to pass on without check and even dwell 
upon them with his mind, and thus besmirch him- 
self with the most pernicious associations. 

The train of ideas should, therefore, be care- 
fully guarded, in order to avoid those suggestions 
which are detrimental to the spirit. All impure 
suggestions and associations should be zealously 



118 
avoided or subdued. This can be done by a strong 
will-power. 

The retents of the spirit can be developed and 
made clear to the mind, and the activity of the 
association of ideas may be made responsive to 
the thinking faculty. This can be done especially 

1) by strict attention to those things which we 
wish to have retained in our memory, and 
this in the very act of perception or under 
the process of the thinking faculty; 

2) by system or order in the acquisition of 
material for knowledge or in the process of 
thinking, and 

3) by often repeating those things acquired. 
This work, however, does not properly belong 

to the memory itself, but only to the thinking 
faculty and the will power. The functions of the 
spirit's activity in memory in receiving impres- 
sions, retaining them and in reflection of the ide- 
as, are absolutely necessary for thinking. These 
activities of the spirit, therefore, constitute the 
sine qua non to a rational sensibility and a ra- 
tional will, with respect to the acquisition of 
knowledge. 

Reception, retention and reflection of ideas are 
the functions of memory. Sometimes also recol- 
lection has been considered an exercise of the 
memory. But we cannot consistently call recol- 
lection memory. For recollection is an exercise 



119 
of two distinct faculties, namely, the thinking 
faculty and the will. In recollection, the spirit 
through these faculties is engaged in finding with- 
in the domain of memory some particular idea 
which for the present seems lost, but which after 
some effort may be found. Recollection will be 
discussed more fully later. 

The association of ideas is, indeed, the true and 
real memory, the real aurora of the spirit. The 
word memory is derived from the Latin word 
memoria which, again, is from the word memor, 
and means mindful. This word, therefore, is most 
fittingly used to denote this faculty of the spirit. 
For when something has entered into and remains 
in the memory, perhaps for ever, the spirit cer- 
tainly has cause to be mindful, observant and at- 
tentive, especially as anything making an impres- 
sion upon it will have an effect upon either the 
sensibility, the understanding, or the will, and any 
of the impressions may be of vital importance to 
the very existence of the spirit in its present in- 
carnate state, and to its future welfare. 

We find by experience that memory differs 
very much in individuals. In some it seems to be 
with respect to its essence as soft as wax tablets, 
and as sensitive as a photographer's plate to light ; 
in others, again, it seems to be as hard as the 
stone in which it is necessary to inscribe charac- 



120 
ters with hammer and chisel. The former indi- 
viduals need to be on their guard so as not to 
lose what they have acquired, perhaps with ease, 
while the latter may rest assured that their hard 
labor shall not be in vain, as their impressions 
will not easily fade or disappear. 

In our memory, then, we find our mental acqui- 
sitions and riches, the fruit of our spirit's life 
and labor. In our memory we have, indeed, a 
panorama of our life. In viewing the process of 
the association of ideas, we often find a happy 
resort for our mind when tired from strenuous 
labor or after prolonged and profound thinking. 
This power of memory, the association of ideas, 
is indeed a most happy propensity of the human 
spirit, as it always furnishes the thinking faculty 
with matter for musing, contemplation, and 
thought. The life of the spirit would be very 
monotonous and dreary, indeed, were it not for 
this wonderful endowment. The association of 
ideas together with imagination of the thinking 
faculty constitute, par excellence, the most won- 
derful and useful powers of the human spirit. 

Memory, then, embraces not only the power 
by virtue of which ideas are represented to the 
mind, but also the very essence of the spirit in 
which the power is inherent. It is the foundation 
upon which human reason rests. 



STATES OF THE SPIRIT. 











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QUESTIONS. 



1 What is meant by states of the spirit? 

2 Explain the meaning of consciousness and its import. 

3 Fame the states of the spirit. 

4 When and how may we consider a person in the state 
of unconsciousness? 

5 Is this state entirely useless? Why? 

6 Do we remember anything from this state? 

7 Is the human spirit in this world dependent on a 
material brain for its exercise of thought, feeling, 
and will? Why? 

8 If the faculties were not detached, as it were, from 
the power of memory, would there be anything to 
hinder the mind from exercising its functions even 
under the influence of anaesthetics? 

9 Since the mind seems to be in need of the nerves 
and the brain as long as a human being lives in this 
world, may we at last be able to locate the nerves and 
the parts of the brain by means of which the facul- 
ties exercise their respective functions ? 

10 Would, then, phrenology become a real science? 

11 Will the spirit ever be able to think, feel, and will, 
etc., without the use of a material brain ? 



124 

12 What is semiconsciousness? 

13 Explain this state in case of a child. 

14 What is a dream? 

15 Does a dream mean anything at all? 

16 What is somnambulism? 

17 Should we hold persons in this state responsible for 
their acts? 

18 What is self-consciousness? 



THE STATES OF THE SPIRIT. 

By states of the spirit we mean its activity with 
respect to consciousness. The word conscious- 
ness means, in general, a state of knowing. Know- 
ing, again, means to understand clearly. But 
understanding a thing by necessity implies, fur- 
ther, an act of memory and a process of the think- 
ing faculty. Consciousness depends on several 
things. It depends upon the ability of the spirit 
to know, and also upon its development, disci- 
pline, condition, and circumstances. We notice, 
therefore, in a human being three general states, 
namely unconsciousness, semiconsciousness, and 
self -consciousness. In any of these states a hu- 
man being may be at any time even after it has 
reached the state of self-consciousness. But the 
natural order of development of every human 
being is the one here stated. 

1. The State of Unconsciousness. 

This is the state of a human being from the 
time of conception until the time of birth, and 



126 
longer. In this state we also find a person during 
sound sleep, in fainting, and when under the in- 
fluence of certain drugs, as, chloroform. 

In this state the mind is a tabula rasa. It is 
a most mysterious state. The spirit lives in union 
with the body, and the body lives by virtue there- 
of, and yet the spirit does not remember anything 
from this state. Take, for instance, an infant. 
It lives, eats, and drinks, cries and smiles, and 
grows mentally and physically. All this others 
observe and know, but the child does not. Anoth- 
er instance: a patient is placed upon the operat- 
ing table, and after he has been put to sleep the 
surgeon takes the knife, lays open the interior of 
the body, and having performed the operation, 
sews up the incision and sends the patient back 
into the sick bed. After a while the patient wakes 
up from his unconscious state, but is entirely 
ignorant of what has taken place. During sleep 
we are in just about the same state, except that 
we can be easily aroused. 

Now, as to sleep, it seems wonderfully strange, 
at least, if the most precious part of our being, 
namely, the spirit, should be idle about one third 
of our temporal existence, and be in the state of 
unconsciousness. Is it possible that the spirit 
should be entirely inactive, as the body is, and at 
rest all this time ? May we not infer, however, 



127 
from the state of the spirit's unconsciousness in 
sleep, that the spirit, after all, is at the same time 
and in some mysterious way active and growing 
for the spiritual world, perhaps under the foster- 
ing care of the angels? For is not, after all, the 
present life, compared with eternity, only a small 
beginning of another and better life? Is the 
present life, compared with the eternal life, any- 
thing but the spirit's infancy? Or is it possible 
that the spirit is unable to think or remember 
without the use of the material brain? How, 
then, explain the self -consciousness of departed 
spirits that have been recalled to their earthly 
bodies, if they always must depend on a material 
brain? How could those spirits hear and under- 
stand commands, after the brain even had begun 
to undergo mortification? Yet as far as this 
present life is concerned, our spirit seems to be 
in need of the brain. Whatever we may do, how- 
ever, in the state of unconsciousness, we do not 
remember anything about it. The existence in 
that state is a blank. 

We know by human experience that the mem- 
ory is kept intact even during a state of uncon- 
sciousness, so that, as soon as a person emerges 
from this state, the faculties again begin to exer- 
cise their respective functions, and we remember 
things the same as we did before, but nothing 



128 
whatever of things which happened during the 
state of unconsciousness, as, for instance, during 
an operation performed on the body. It seems, 
therefore, as if the faculties alone are incapicitat- 
ed to perform their functions during this state. 
And it seems also that these faculties of the spirit 
are entirely dependent upon the nervous system 
for the exercise of their functions. For if only 
the nervous system was paralyzed for the time, 
the faculties might just as well keep on feeling, 
thinking and willing in the spirit. Or how shall 
we otherwise be able to give a reasonable account 
of this state? From a Biblical point of view we 
may learn that as long as we live in a material 
world we shall not under ordinary circumstances 
be allowed to enter too far into the spiritual 
world. The nervous system, the brain included, 
seems to serve as an anchor for our spirit, by 
means of which we shall cling to the world of 
matter as long as God shall permit us to live. The 
spiritual world is as yet a sealed world. Why 
otherwise should even the apostle Paul, who once 
was permitted to enter so far as into the third 
heaven, be denied the privilege of explaining in 
full his experiences there, and why should he af- 
terwards have to be kept down to humility by a 
special cross, so that he should not be puffed up 
in pride on account of the higher revelations 



129 
which he had received? 1 To be allowed to enter 
the lower spiritual world must be a curse and not 
a privilege. Therefore, we may hold it as a fact 
that as long as we live in this world we are in 
need of a material brain, and that it may be pos- 
sible to locate those brain cells and the nerves 
upon which the different faculties of the mind are 
dependent for the exercise of their respective 
functions. This being so, phrenology certainly 
has a place to fill in the realm of knowledge. In 
the spiritual world, however, we need not be de- 
pendent on matter but entirely on spiritual things. 
For the body of resurrection shall not be material 
but spiritual — soma pneumatikon (1 Cor. 15: 44), 
and we shall all be changed, for this corruptible 
must put on immortality (1 Cor. 15: 53). 

2. The State of Semiconsciousness. 

This is a state in which the spirit is partly con- 
scious. It is the state of infancy or early child- 
hood, and also of adults during dreams, in som- 
nambulism and in insanity. 

The consciousness of a little child is not fully 
developed. Its knowledge of things is very shal- 
low and imperfect, and it does not know anything 
about morals. Its memory is weak. Our own 

1) 2 Cor. 12: 7. 



130 
experience will tell us that very few persons can 
recall anything from the first three or even four 
years of their lives. A child, therefore, is not 
responsible for its actions. 

This is also the state in which dreams occur. 
A dream is a mental process in which the spirit 
during the body's rest is irregularly occupied with 
introspection, viewing the impressions of past 
experiences as they happen to occur in the asso- 
ciation of ideas. These may at times be more or 
less elaborated by the power of imagination to 
such an extent as to arouse especially the sensi- 
bility. As a rule, there is very little reasoning 
carried on in dreams. Yet there are dreams which 
will leave upon the mind new impressions which 
tend to show that there has been a logical think- 
ing process carried on, impressions that will fol- 
low us even through life. 

The Divine Hand often makes use of this state 
of the spirit to reveal unto men many wonderful 
things even in our age. Evidences in support of 
this statement might be produced at any time. 

Somnambulism is another form of semicon- 
sciousness. In the act of dreaming, the faculty 
of the understanding is predominant, but in som- 
nambulism the will power is predominant. Hence 
the wonderful and curious feats performed by 
the body in this state. In a common dream the 



131 
person may be still in bed or in the place of rest, 
but in somnambulism the body is moved about 
from place to place without the person's knowing 
anything about it. 

In insanity the understanding, and particularly 
the thinking power, wanders about from one thing 
to another without any special order, following, 
perhaps, the order of the association of ideas, or 
stubbornly clinging to certain deeply rooted ideas. 
A derangement of the memory is no doubt a cause 
of insanity. It makes the person incapable of 
remembering things, and consequently makes him 
incapable of correct thinking or reasoning. 

Persons in the semiconscious state should not 
be held responsible for any of their acts and 
deeds. 

3. The State of Self-consciousness. 

This is a state in which the spirit fully knows 
its own acts and state, its moral obligations and 
responsibilities. It is the highest state of con- 
sciousness. 

Self -consciousness is preeminently a knowledge 
of the ego, that is, of the spirit itself. Every 
human being learns first to know the external 
world and, then, by proper education he learns 
to know himself, which, after all, is not an easy 



133 

task. In this state we find man in his greatest 
glory. 

The spirit's transition from one state into an- 
other we shall not venture to discuss. It is cer- 
tain, however, that there is such a transition, and 
also that there must be different degrees in the 
higher states. For we know by experience that 
persons differ very much, particularly in the state 
of self -consciousness. 




POWERS OF THE SPIRIT- 



THE SOUL. 
THE HEART. 



QUESTIONS. 



1 What passages in the Holy Scriptures suggest a dif- 
ference between sonl and spirit? 

2 What is meant by dichotomy? 

3 What is meant by trichotomy ? 

4 What Biblical words are used to denote the human 
spirit ? 

5 Are the component parts of man "spirit and soul 
and body" ? 

6 Has the doctrine of trichotomy any logical founda- 
tion in the Scriptures? 

7 What Biblical words are used to denote the soul ? 

8 How shall we understand the import of the word 
soul in the expression : "soul and body" ? 

9 Is there really a difference between soul and spirit? 

10 How do you explain the words "spirit" and "soul" 
in the expression: "spirit and soul and body"? 

11 What can the apostle really mean by "spirit" in that 
expression ? 

12 What wrong impression have the theologians re- 
ceived on account of the doctrine of trichotomy? 

13 How could it be corrected? 

14 Is it logically correct to state the essential constit- 
uent parts of man as being "soul and body" ? Why ? 



136 

15 How should the essential constituent parts of man 
be correctly stated? 

16 What proof can you offer in support of the doctrine 
of dichotomy? 

17 Express arithmetically the difference between soul 
and spirit. 

18 What are the two great powers of the spirit? 

19 What is psychology? 

20 Give the derivation of the word. 

21 What do we mean by the soul of the spirit? 

22 Where in the body do we find the spirit's abode ? 

23 What is the difference in meaning of the words 
"soul" and "living soul"? 

24 What is the function of the soul in the order of its 
development ? 

25 Explain the office of the soul with respect to the 
body. 

26 Explain the interests of the soul with respect to 
spiritual things. 

27 Does the soul need to cooperate with the heart in 
everything ? Explain. 

28 In what relation does the soul stand to the heart of 
the spirit and the body? 

29 What power of the spirit must always express itself 
through the actions and states of the body ? 

30 Does the heart of the spirit always express itself? 

31 What does an expression like this mean: "I did 
not mean it" ? 

32 What effect upon the soul must a good heart have? 

33 What is cardiology? 

34 Give the derivation of the word. 



137 

35 What is the general scriptural meaning of the word 
"heart"? 

36 Explain the position of the heart of the spirit with 
reference to the soul, and its import. 

37 Explain the office of the heart. 

38 Which of the two great powers of the spirit, soul 
and heart, is the mainspring of life? 

39 How is the heart of the spirit in correspondence 
with the body, and how may it affect the body? 

40 Does the heart take any interest at all in earthly 
things ? How ? 

41 How may we notice an act of the heart ? 

42 When is man in his fullest activity ? 

43 Is, for instance, worship before Almighty God of 
any value without the participation of the heart 
therein ? 

44 What makes man so authoritative in his higher call- 
ings and expressions? 




THE TWO GREAT POWERS OF THE SPIRIT. 

The spirit of man is as to its essence or sub- 
stance a personal, indivisible unity. Yet in this 
spirit there are two great powers working, having 
sometimes separate functions to perform through 
general and special faculties. These great powers 
of the spirit we call the soul and the heart. They 
occupy separate domains of the spirit's essence. 
These two domains and these two great powers 
constitute the spirit. When, therefore, we speak 
of the spirit, we mean these two domains and these 
two powers as an entity — the whole immaterial 
part of man, in contradistinction to his physical 
part. When we speak of a certain act or acts of 
the spirit we mean the combined action of the 
soul and heart. 

The difference between soul and spirit and also 
between soul and heart we shall now discuss, 
first in a general way, and then more in detail 
under separate topics. 

There are a few passages in the Holy Scriptures 
which suggest a difference between soul and 



139 
spirit. We may, therefore, in this place study 
those passages, and, if possible, solve the problem. 
In the first letter to the Thessalonians, chapter 
5 verse 23, we read : "And the very God of peace 
sanctify you wholly, and your whole spirit and 

SOUl and body (to Trvevfia Kal rj ^vyr] koX to crCjfxa) 

be preserved blameless unto the coming of our 
Lord Jesus Christ." And in the letter to the He- 
brews, chapter 4, verse 12, we read: "For the 
word of God is quick, and powerful, and sharper 
than any two-edged sword, piercing even to the 
dividing asunder of soul and spirit (^vx^s ko.1 
Trvev/xaros) and of the joints and morrow," etc. 

In the theological world the above cited pas- 
sages have given rise to two different theories in 
regard to the essential component parts of man. 
These theories are embodied in the doctrines of 
dichotomy and trichotomy. By the former is 
meant that man consists of two essential parts, 
"soul and body" ; and by the latter that man con- 
sists of three parts, "spirit, soul and body." 

There are three questions which we must 
answer before we can state the difference between 
soul and spirit, and these questions concern the 
component parts of man. Does man consist of 

1) "spirit and soul and body"? or 

2) "soul and body"? or 

3) "spirit and body"? 



140 

The First Question Answered. 

A deeper study of the case, especially of the let- 
ter to the Hebrews, chapter 4, verse 12, will lead 
us to the belief that there must be a difference 
between soul and spirit. These words, therefore, 
cannot be identical. A hasty examination of the 
Letter to the Thessalonians, chapter 5, verse 23, 
might lead us to answer the question in the affirm- 
ative, and thus confirm the doctrine of tricho- 
tomy. But we should not cling stubbornly to 
only one passage, but search for the truth in all 
the Scripture, if necessary, when there are other 
passages throwing light on the same subject. Let 
us, therefore, see what other witnesses in the 
Scriptures have to say in regard to this question. 

According to Genesis, chapter 2, verse 7, God 
made the human body of the dust of the ground, 
and the human spirit by His breathing into this 
body the breath of life, or, to state the whole pro- 
cedure verbatim: "The Lord God formed man of 
the dust of the ground, and breathed into his 
nostril the breath of life, and man became a living 
soul." From this fundamental statement, then, 
we find that the immaterial part of man or his 
spirit came directly from God's breathing into 
man, and that this spirit is the vital principle of 
the body. This spirit, the breath of life, is the 



141 
Hebrew D^H nDttfX By this divine power man 
commenced to live, or became "a living soul" 
(PPn t^DJ^> that is, a spirit-embodied being. Thus 

T 

man consists of spirit and body. This spirit, or 
vital principle of man, is referred to several times 
also in the Old Testament writings as the rational 
part of man. See, for instance, Genesis, chapter 
7, verse 32; Job, chapter 27, verse 3; Proverbs, 
chapter 20, verse 27. To express this very idea 
another word is sometimes used in the Old Testa- 
ment, namely r\)*l> as > f° r instance, in Ecclesias- 
tes, chapter 12, verse 4 : "Then shall the dust (the 
body) return to the earth as it was, and the 
spirit ( n-H ) shall return unto God who gave 
it." See also Zech., chapter 12, verse 1. In the 
New Testament writings we find for these two 
Old Testament words the word Trvev/xa, express- 
ing exactly the same idea, as, for instance, in 
the letter of James, chapter 2, verse 26: "The 
body without the spirit (irvefyax) • is dead"; and 
in the first letter to the Corinthians, chapter 2, 
verse 11 : "For what man knoweth the things 
of man save the spirit (irvefyia) of man which is 
in him?" See also Mark, chapter 15, verse 37; 
Luke, chapter 8, verse 55. 

In view of all these fundamental statements 
the saying of the apostle in the Letter to the Thes- 



142 
salonians, chapter 5, verse 23, cannot be a logical 
division of man's essential and constituent parts. 
The spirit being the whole immaterial part of 
man, the soul cannot logically be coordinated with 
it. Yet the soul may be embraced by and con- 
tained in the spirit as a part of it. 

The doctrine of trichotomy has no logical 
foundation whatever in the Scriptures. The old 
and new law of jurisprudence may therefore be 
applied even to this case, namely, "In the mouth 
of two or three witnesses shall every word be 
established" (2 Cor. 13: 1). The doctrine of 
trichotomy has only one witness (1 Thess. 5: 23) 
and, therefore, the case must be dismissed. 

The Second Question Answered. 

Are the constituent parts of man "soul and 
body"? The expression "soul and body" is used 
several times in the Scriptures, but the word soul, 
used in this way, is taken only in a figurative 
sense, either to denote the whole spirit, or to 
denote the whole man, spirit and body. For in- 
stance, in the following passage the word soul 
denotes the whole spirit: "Ananias hearing these 
words fell down and gave up the soul" (Acts 5: 
5). See also Genesis 35: 18; Matt. 10: 28. In 
the following passage the word soul denotes both 



143 
the spirit and the body, that is, the whole person : 
"And we were in all in the ship two hundred 
three score and sixteen souls" (Acts 27 : 37) . The 
word soul used literally and in a real sense can 
be studied in the following passages: "My soul 
thirsteth for God, for the living God" (Ps. 42 : 2) ; 
"Thou mayest kill and eat flesh in all thy gates, 
whatsoever thy soul lusteth after" (Deut. 12: 15). 
The Scriptures have two words to denote the 
word soul, namely, j£?£J and $vxn. 

We have already stated that the spirit denotes 
in man all that is not matter. The soul being of 
spiritual nature, must, therefore, be found some- 
where in the spirit or be a part of it. There 
must at the same time be a difference between 
the soul and the spirit as indicated by the passage 
in the letter to the Hebrews, chapter 4, verse 12, 
where the apostle speaks of the power of the word 
of God as "piercing even to the dividing asunder 
of soul and spirit" (^xv* KC " ?rvev>aTos). In these 
words there is at least a suggestion made as 
to a possible separation between soul and spirit. 
As there is no statement to the contrary, 
we may hold fast to this assertion. The differ- 
ence between "soul and spirit" need not neces- 
sarily be an essential one, not any more perhaps 
than is implied in "joints and marrow." Now, 



144 
we know that both joints and marrow in the 
body are matter, and by analogy we also may 
assert that both soul and spirit are immaterial. 
And as joints are not marrow or vice versa, so 
we may hold that soul is not exactly the same as 
spirit, or vice versa. Consequently, there is a 
difference of some kind. 

What, then, shall we say of the "soul" found 
in the expression "spirit and soul and body"? 
When the apostle uses the word "spirit" in a co- 
ordinated position with the expression "soul and 
body," he uses it in a figurative sense (synech- 
doche) signifying by the whole only a part. This 
part thus expressed by the word spirit cannot 
logically be the soul. This is very plain. What, 
then, is meant by that part expressed by the word 
"spirit" and which is not soul? By a thorough 
examination of all the Scriptures we conclude 
that this part can be nothing but the heart of the 
spirit. The statement referred to could have 
been expressed logically thus : heart and soul and 
body, or still better: spirit and body. Thinking, 
however, of the soul also as an important inter- 
mediary agent between that denoted by "the 
spirit" and "the body," the apostle mentioned the 
soul surely not intending thereby to state a logi- 
cal division of man's constituent parts. Not un- 
derstanding this difference, some theologians 



145 
entertain the idea that the spirit must be some- 
thing in man by virtue of which he is a higher 
being than the animals, and that the soul is some- 
thing of a lower nature, which man has in com- 
mon with the animals. By means of the spirit, 
they say, man belongs to the supernatural world 
and is related to God, and by means of the soul 
man belongs to the world of matter and is related 
to the animals. If these learned men could only 
mentally substitute the word "heart" for the word 
"spirit", everything would be clear. 

It should be noticed also that in respect to the 
very highest and noblest attribute in man's life, 
namely love, God nowhere commands man to love 
God and his neighbor with all his spirit and with 
all his soul, but always, "with all thy heart and 
with all thy soul." If now the spirit is the most 
divine in man, compared with the soul, as some as- 
sert, it is, indeed, inexplicable that God should 
omit to specify the love of the spirit. But the 
terms "heart" and "soul" express the whole spirit. 

The answer to this question, therefore, must 
be in the negative : the essential constituent parts 
of man are not "soul and body." 

The Third Question Answered. 

From what we already have said we may now 

confidently state that the essential constituent 

10 



146 
parts of man are "spirit and body," and thus also 
confirm the doctrine of dichotomy as the Scrip- 
tural and only true doctrine. 

In further support of this doctrine I may also 
mention the following passages in which all that 
is spiritual in man is expressed by the word 
spirit : 

"Let everything that hath spirit praise the 
Lord" (Ps. 150: 6). 

"The Lord Jesus Christ be with thy spirit" (2 
Tim. 4: 22). 

"Lord Jesus, receive my spirit" (Acts 7: 59) . 

"Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit" 
(Luke 23 : 46) . 

The difference between soul and spirit we may 
express arithmetically thus: 

Heart+Soul=Spirit ; 
. \ Spirit — Soul=Heart. 
or: 

Kaphia. -J- if/v x>7 = irvtvfxa; 
7rvev/xa — i/ v^q = KapSi'a. 

or: 

2b + 0BJ = nDtfJ or n^; 

T T • 

••• now - #dj = zb- 

T T * 

Of course, in reality the heart could not exist 
without the soul, or vice versa. They are by 



147 
God's creative act made inseparable and formed 
into an eternal unity. Only God can separate 
the parts of which the human spirit is composed. 
When the sacred historian and author of the Acts 
of the Apostles describes the unity of the mem- 
bers of the first Christian church, he could not 
think of a better comparison than the union of 
the parts of the human spirit and, therefore, says : 
"The multitudes of them that believed were of 
one heart and of one soul." x 

We will now proceed to a detailed description 
of the human spirit (soul and heart). In this 
study the difference between the soul and spirit 
will also be more fully pointed out, and will more 
readily be understood. 



1) Acts 4: 32. 




THE SOUL. 

1. Psychology. 

The doctrine concerning the soul we call psy- 
chology. The word psychology comes from the 
Greek words psyche (^x^)> sou ^ an d logos (Aoyos), 
doctrine. 

2. The Essence and Position of the Soul. 

The soul is the external essence and power of 
the spirit (-nvevfia ). Being the external essence 
of the spirit, it must touch or lie next to the body. 
Its location in the body is essentially in the blood, 
and particularly in that muscle, or organ, called 
the heart. 

Some theologians hold that the soul of man is 
of a lower spiritual essence, something like the 
animal soul, and that spirit, again, is something 
higher, yes, that the spirit compared with the 
soul, as they understand it, is "the only divine in 
man." This, however, is a great mistake and a 
confounding of terms. For the soul is just as 
much divine as any other essence of the spirit. 



149 
In fact, these learned men have confounded the 
concepts, spirit and soul, and thereby played 
havoc with the whole field of metaphysical sci- 
ence. This bewilderment among the theologians 
has, no doubt, been caused by a misunderstanding 
of St. Paul's expression in the Letter to the Thes- 
salonians, chapter 5, verse 23, in which he speaks 
of man's "spirit, soul and body," as if he thereby 
meant to state a logical division of the constituent 
parts of man. This statement, however, is not a 
logical division, as can be verified by a great num- 
ber of Biblical passages. One single statement, 
even if found in the Bible, should not be stub- 
bornly clung to when there are several other 
statements explaining the same thing. 

It is important to know that the word soul is 
not the same as the expression "living soul," 
found in Biblical literature. For the former word 
denotes a special part of the essence and power 
of the spirit, and the latter expression denotes 
the whole man, spirit and body. 

3. The Office of the Soul. 

The office of the soul is twofold. In the order 
of development the soul has first to deal particu- 
larly with its own body, with other corporeal be- 
ings and with the material world at large, and 
secondly with the spiritual world. 



150 

As to the body, the nurture, maintenance, su- 
pervision and care of it, belong preeminently to 
the office of the soul, as does also the dominion 
over the animals and the material world. The 
functions of this office of the soul are performed 
by means of the nervous system. 

With reference to the spiritual world, the soul 
has interets of its own, as, for instance, the pur- 
suit of knowledge of the world in which we live. 
This kind of knowledge it acquires by means of 
the sense-organs. 

The soul, being the external essence and power 
of the spirit, must be the servant of the heart 
of the spirit whenever called upon. But the soul 
has functions to perform peculiar to itself, and 
can perform these functions without the aid of 
the heart. Thus eating and drinking and any 
physical labor or exercise are functions of the 
soul, and whenever these can be performed with- 
out serious thought, the soul can do it without the 
aid or interference of the heart. Under ordinary 
circumstances, therefore, the heart may be taken 
up with supernatural things while the soul is 
occupied with earthly things. 

The soul is always an intermediary between 
the body, or the external world,, and the heart. 
The soul is, therefore, always in touch with the 
present world. This is not the case with the 



151 
heart. By virtue of these two powers, soul and 
heart, man can be a hypocrite. An animal having 
no signs of a heart or conscience, can never be a 
hypocrite. The soul takes in anything it may 
come in contact with, but it depends on the heart 
whether it shall keep it or not. Thus a wise and 
noble heart will command the soul to close the 
eyes to those things which are detrimental, and 
direct the pursuits of the soul to other fields. The 
soul, which in the first place must deal with 
worldly and material things, would become very 
worldly-minded indeed, were it not for the higher 
calling which it must take part in, by cooperating 
with the heart. In divine worship, for instance, 
when the heart is true to its God, the soul must 
take part, and the body will give due expressions 
in the worship to the Almighty by virtue thereof. 
But when the heart is false to its Maker the soul 
may or can worship alone. The worship by the 
soul alone, however, is incomplete and even hypo- 
critical. A heartless worshiper may thus appear 
as a true worshiper, take part in the services by 
reading the Lord's Prayer and the confession of 
faith, sing beautiful hymns, glorifying God, as it 
were, in the temple of worship, and yet during 
all these performances his heart's thoughts may 
be on his every-day business. Indeed, he may 
seem very attentive to the sermon, steadily look- 



152 
ing or staring at the preacher, but the services 
being over, he will not remember the least of what 
he saw or heard. Surely the heart was not pres- 
ent and did not take part in that worship or 
praise. But the soul took part in it. 

In everything man does by means of his body, 
the soul is always the approximate cause. But 
the heart may or may not participate. We are, 
therefore, able to study the soul very closely as 
far as it expresses itself through the body. The 
heart, again, no one but God can see or fully un- 
derstand and judge correctly. We must, how- 
ever, hold fast to man's words and deeds, which 
always are the products of his soul, if not of his 
heart. It will not help a man, therefore, if he 
undertakes to excuse himself, saying: "I did not 
mean it," unless this can be positively proved. 
For the expression, "I did not mean it," would 
simply imply that the person in question did not 
do it with his heart, but he did it with his soul, 
which in its self-conscious state is responsible for 
its words and deeds. The soul is dependent upon 
the condition of the heart. A good heart will 
make a good soul, and a good soul cannot exist 
without a good heart. 



THE HEART. 

1. Cardiology. 

The doctrine concerning the heart of the spirit 
we call cardiology. The word comes from the 
Greek words cardia UapSia ), heart, and logos 
(Xoyos ) , doctrine. The general meaning of the 
word heart according to the Holy Scriptures is the 
interior part or depth of anything, or something 
enveloped or hidden from view. 

2. The Essence and Position of the Heart. 

The heart, with reference to its essence or 
substance, consists of the internal part of the 
spirit. It is the kernel of the real ego. It is "the 
inner man." The heart is the mainspring of life. 
If we should compare the heart with the soul as 
to its essence, we might say that the heart is the 
quintessence of the spirit. This is nothing but 
natural, for in the heart we find the conscience, 
the moral nature, hence the throne-room of God 
and the supreme court of man. 



154 

3. The Office of the Heart. 

The heart in its normal condition deals preemi- 
nently with things supernatural or purely spir- 
itual. Sometimes, and particularly in emergency, 
does the heart condescend to and cooperate with 
the soul in earthly things. The heart deals more 
with eternal things, and the soul more with tem- 
poral things. A demoralized heart, however,, will 
sink down and unite with the soul in the pursuit 
of only temporal and material objects. This is, 
of course, an abnormal state of the heart. 

The heart is the directing and controlling pow- 
er of the whole human being. Upon the heart, 
therefore, depends the life of man. Hence the 
great and good admonition of old: "Keep thy 
heart above all that thou guardest; for out of it 
are the issues of life" (Proverbs 4: 23). 

The heart is in correspondence with the body 
and the external world by means of the soul; so 
that we may say that as the body is the organ of 
the soul, so is the soul the organ of the heart. 

The heart may be in direct correspondence 
with the spiritual world without the use of the 
sense-organs. For the Holy Scriptures tell us that 
God has at times been in direct communication 
with man while the latter has been in a state of 
sleep. This, however, is an exception from the rule. 



155 
Although the heart deals mostly with spiritual 
things, we must not think that it has nothing to 
do with the material world. It certainly at times 
enjoys the world that God has made. It also has 
an effect upon the body. The following quota- 
tions will remind us of this fact : "A merry heart 
is a good medicine or causeth good healing," and 
"maketh a cheerful countenance." 1 It may also 
have an opposite effect, as we can infer from the 
following figurative statement: "The heart melt- 
eth, and the knees smite together, and anguish is 
in all loins and the faces of them all are waxed 
pale" (Nahum2: 10). 

The heart can never express itself through the 
body without the agency of the soul. To distin- 
guish whether an act is of the heart or of the soul 
is, indeed, most difficult. In a general way, how- 
ever, we may ascertain if an act be of the heart, 
whether expressed in words or in deed, by its 
being accompanied by a certain earnestness and 
fervency, deep emotion and great willingness. 
All the acts of the heart are characterized by 
great intensity. 

When both heart and soul act in unison, the 
whole man is in his fullest activity. In man's 
worship, for instance, nothing is complete unless 
the heart participates. In the exercise of man's 

1) Proverbs 15: 13; 17: 22. 



156 
highest functions, the worship of God, the obedi- 
ence to the following command of the Maker him- 
self is absolutely necessary : "Thou shalt love the 
Lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy 
soul." 1 In the heart's highest activities it often 
lifts itself above experience. This it can do by 
virtue of faith. The feelings, the understanding, 
and the will of the heart are naturally of the 
highest order. The heart is authoritative, and 
acts as one who has authority. This it can do on 
account of the moral faculty, the conscience. The 
heart lives generally in the realm of reason, the 
highest mode of thinking. 

We have said that the heart and the soul may 
act independently of each other, and also that 
they may act in unison, according to the dictates 
of the heart. These attitudes we will try to 
explain by the following diagrams. 

1) Luke 10: 27. 



157 

Diagram Explaining the Two Powers of the Spir- 
it and Their Attitude Toward Each Other. 




fSoul. 
Spiritj 

[Heart. 



This diagram is intended to show the great 
powers of the spirit, the soul and the heart, in 
a disconnected attitude. 

In this attitude the soul pays attention only to 
its special duties and the heart to its particular 
calling. The diagram explains the statement we 



158 
have made that the workings of the soul need 
not necessarily be the workings of the heart. 

But supposing the heart will or must cooperate 
with the soul, then the spiritual currents gene- 
rated by the heart in its faculties will turn into, 
take hold of, and join in with the currents of 
the soul in all its corresponding faculties; and 
the two great powers of the spirit will be in con- 
centrated and united action. Then a would be 
in a straight line with A, b with B, and c with C. 




The Soul and the Heart in Concentrated and 
United Action. 



159 
The circle described by the letters a, b and c 
indicates the heart of the spirit; and the outer 
circle, described by the letters A, B and C, indi- 
cates the soul. 

Man is by nature a social being. For this he 
was made, and this nature is so strong that when 
there is lack of society he must sometimes con- 
verse with himself. This act of talking to one- 
self we call soliloquy, as the derivation of the 
word indicates — solus (one) and loqui (to speak) . 
Soliloquy is a conversation between the heart and 
the soul. This phenomenon shows plainly that 
man considers himself not only as a subject, but 
also as an object. Soliloquy is a natural pro- 
pensity, a personal endowment, and a happy one, 
indeed. The human spirit has need of medita- 
tion and contemplation. In this exercise of the 
spirit it must give vent to its innermost feelings, 
thoughts, and volitions. The human spirit being 
an introspective, retrospective, prospective, and 
circumspective personality, it cannot but engage 
in soliloquy sometimes, at least. The interests 
of its great realm demand it. 

The heart of the human spirit is a most wonder- 
ful power. Of its deep and secret thoughts, feel- 
ings, and volitions, no one but the individual and 
God have any idea, as long as these are unex- 
pressed. 



160 

Why should man be thus endowed? I am in- 
clined to think that this power of secrecy was 
given to man, 1) for the sake of self -protection 
against evil powers in the world, and hence for a 
good purpose; and 2) to the end that man should 
trust absolutely in God alone, to whom man should 
always stand as an obedient and trusting child to 
his father. This trust in God alone became so 
much the more necessary after the fall of man. 
For through sin the human heart has often used 
its secret power to wicked ends. This, of course, 
is always wrong. But the human* heart is very 
deceitful. 

I therefore venture to state that although we 
should trust each other as human beings so far 
as the words and deeds give us reason so to do, 
no human being should trust absolutely, or with- 
out a certain reservation, any other created being. 
This statement may sound and appear very harsh 
or pessimistic, perhaps, to some who are ignorant 
of the ways of this sinful world, but it is never- 
theless absolutely true. Human history corrobo- 
rates it. For have not even parents deceived their 
own children and vice versa, husband deceived 
wife, and friend, friend? Who, then, can trust 
an enemy or a stranger? 

But after all, in order to live a happy life we 
must in this world live in good faith both with 



161 
God and fellowmen, and this whether we wish to 
or not. For when this living faith is gone, only 
dire results and unhappiness remain. Faith, 
therefore, whether its ground be divine or only- 
human, is absolutely necessary to a happy life. 
Faith is necessary because the human spirit, as 
well as God, is invisible. Without faith it is 
impossible to please God (Hebrews 11: 6), and 
without faith in man it is impossible to please 
man. But we must demand a good and firm 
foundation for our faith. Let us, therefore, trust 
in God absolutely and our fellow beings as much 
as we can. 




FACULTIES OF THE SPIRIT: 



SENSIBILITY. 

UNDERSTANDING. 

WILL. 



THE SENSIBILITY. 



Diagram of Sensibility. 



)in 



B. 



Spirit 



\AJhe Heart. 
\B. The Sou). 



C%- 'Volitional Feelings. 



\\<r>' 

WW 

WW* 
WW"** 


^3 
<a 

"•V 

to 

Intellect 


ual 


Feelings. 


^ \\\ 


| > to n y, ^ ^ 

i Physical Feelings. 




c 




3 



QUESTIONS. 



1 Name the general faculties of the spirit. 

2 What is a faculty? 

3 Where in the spirit is conscience located? 

4 Do the faculties act independently of each other? 

5 Can we fully ascertain the interchanges and ex- 
changes that take place among the faculties ? Why ? 

6 What is sensibility? 

7 Compare, and state the difference between the gen- 
eral faculties. 

8 To what is sensibility likened? 

9 What attributes do we ascribe to sensibility? 

10 How does music alone, or music with words, affect 
the different faculties? 

11 How do feelings resolve themselves? 

12 What can you state concerning "neutral feelings"? 

13 Do feelings also enter the domain of memory? 

14 What do we mean by sensorium? 

15 Do we ignore the value of the brain? Why? 

16 Is the brain, however, the real sensorium of the 
spirit ? Why ? 

17 May sensibility alone sometimes take a leading part 
in man's life? 



168 

18 What persons generally allow sensibility to lead and 
guide them? 

19 Is sensibility alone always to be trusted as a guide? 
Why? 

20 What faculty should in our self-conscious state be 
our most trustworthy guide and leader? 

21 Why should we have feelings of pain ? 

22 What would you call the experience of feelings, all 
entering the sensorium of pleasure? 

23 What are the two great causes of feelings? 

24 What are the means of feelings ? 

25 Upon what does the effect of feelings depend with 
respect to sensibility itself ? 

26 How may sensibility react upon the other faculties 
and upon the body? 

27 What is the real aim of sensibility? 

28 What kind of feelings in general can man experi- 
ence? 

29 Upon what ground can we thus divide our feelings ? 

30 Is any further classification of our feelings an easy 
task? Why? 

31 What are physical feelings? 

32 Of what great power of the spirit are the physical 
feelings expressions? 

33 What can you state as to the nature and rank of this 
kind of feelings? 

34 Name the species of physical feelings. 

35 What are vital sensations? Mention some. 

36 Why do we call these feelings vital? 

37 What are organ-sensations? 

38 What are sexual or conjugal feelings? 

?9 Should these feelings be belittled? Why? 



169 

40 What are intellectual feelings ? 

41 What are subjective feelings ? 

42 What are objective feelings? 

43 What are imaginative feelings? 

44 What is meant by potential feelings? 

45 What is meant by economical or industrial feelings? 

46 What are the feelings of the ludicrous? 

47 What are aesthetic feelings? 

48 What are moral or ethical feelings ? 

49 What are religious feelings ? 

50 Wliat is meant by religion ? 

51 What are the fundamental elements of religion? 

52 Mention some of the religious feelings. 

53 Is religion essential to man? Why? 

54 How are the objective feelings divided? 

55 What is meant by natural or realistic feelings? 

56 What is meant by supernatural or idealistic feelings? 

57 What are religious feelings likened unto? 

58 What are volitional feelings? 

59 Name the species of volitional feelings. 

60 How do elective feelings arise ? 

61 What are inclinations? 

62 What do inclinations indicate with respect to a past 
and to a future state of the spirit? 

63 What are desires? 

64 Mention some of the natural desires. 

65 Mention some of the unnatural desires. 

66 What faculty should control volitional feelings? 



THE FACULTIES. 

By faculty we mean an innate ability of the 
spirit by virtue of which it performs distinct 
acts. The general faculties of the spirit are sensi- 
bility, understanding, and will. These faculties 
are common to both the heart and the soul, with 
the exception of the conscience, which is peculiar 
to the heart. The difference between the faculties 
of the soul and the heart consists more in degree 
than in kind. Under these general faculties we 
will find several subfaculties or special faculties, 
which will be considered fully in their proper 
place. None of these faculties, however, can 
operate exclusive of the others. They blend very 
much in their operations. For in the spirit as 
well as in the organs of the body there is always 
more or less a dependence or interdependence in 
their attitude to each other and in their respective 
functions. Yet one or the other may for a time 
have predominance over the others. The velocity 
with which these interchanges and exchanges take 
place is most wonderful, and cannot be fully as- 
certained. We sometimes feel, understand, and 
will in less than a second. 



171 
SENSIBILITY. 

1. Definition. 

By sensibility we mean that power of the spirit 
by which it is capable of sensation or feelings. 

Compared with the other great faculties, sensi- 
bility is preeminently a recipient faculty, a faculty 
of reward or punishment, as the case may be, 
while the understanding is an acquiring or cre- 
ative faculty, and the will a determining and an 
executive faculty. 

The feelings of man may be compared to the 
great oceans, which are very deep, seldom per- 
fectly calm, and often very dangerous. The hu- 
man feelings are not intended to be played with. 
Who can survey the domain of or fathom the 
depth of this most wonderful faculty? 

Sensibility is the faculty in which harmony or 
disharmony is most keenly felt. We might, there- 
fore, call it the musical faculty. All instrumental 
music goes directly and almost exclusively to the 
sensibility. When music is the bearer of intelli- 
gent words as, for instance, in singing, the fac- 
ulty of the understanding also is affected. A com- 
poser of music or one who understands a musical 
composition or the principles of harmony will, of 
course, enjoy music so much more because of his 
exquisite sensibility for music. 



172 

All our feelings resolve themselves into feelings 
of pleasure or feelings of displeasure or pain, that 
is, the feelings are either pleasant or unpleasant. 
When there is neither pleasure nor pain, life is 
either extinct or the person is entirely uncon- 
scious. 

Since we remember our feelings and think of 
them occasionally, they must have been impressed 
upon our spiritual essence, and are kept there 
for our further pleasure or annoyance. To speak 
of "neutral" feelings, that is, feelings which are 
neither pleasant nor unpleasant, is meaningless. 
For such feelings might be aroused, but never 
take definite mental form, except as vague im- 
pulse, and make a negligible impression upon the 
sensibility. 

The place where our feelings are made effective, 
that is, experienced as either pleasure or displeas- 
ure, I would call the sensorium. But the nervous 
system or the brain itself cannot be that sensori- 
um. The nervous system is necessary only be- 
cause of the spirit's union with the body, because 
the spirit uses this body, and because the spirit 
lives in a material world. The spirit itself must 
have a sensorium, not only for the experiences 
of a material or natural world, but also for those 
of a spiritual world, an eternal world. The real 
sensorium of man, therefore, is not in the brain 



173 
or the nervous system, but in the spirit itself, in 
the faculty of the sensibility, which is even now 
purely spiritual. Or should we for a moment en- 
tertain the thought that God, for instance, and 
the angels, or departed human spirits who have 
no material brain, have no material body — should 
we even for a moment think that all these spiritual 
beings have no feelings because they are incor- 
poreal? I think not. The nervous system serves 
only as a means for the real sensorium of the 
spirit, and is seemingly absolutely necessary in 
this world. We do not, therefore, at all under- 
value the importance of either the brain or nerv- 
ous system. We all know the value and import- 
ance of means. We have even means of grace 
or salvation, without which we could not be saved. 
But as to the bodily organism, it would be very 
fatuous, indeed, to ascribe the power of feeling 
to the material brain, and to make that the sen- 
sorium itself. 

The faculty of sensibility is a very important 
power and a great factor in a person's life. Very 
often it even becomes the leading power and guide 
of man's thoughts and actions. Many persons, 
especially children and uneducated people, act 
more from the impulses of feelings than from the 
light and reason of the understanding. This, how- 
ever, is not the best method. For the feelings 



174 
cannot always be relied upon as guides of con- 
duct. At one moment, perhaps, we feel happy, at 
another unhappy, and yet the causes of these 
feelings may be exactly the same. The feelings 
are as the waves of the sea. The waves are con- 
trolled by the wind. The wind is the approximate 
cause of the motion and the direction of the 
waves. Therefore the attention should be paid in 
the first instance to the wind and not particularly 
to the waves. So also with reference to the feel- 
ings. A sailor cannot and dare not follow the 
course of the waves as his guide. If he did he 
must surely turn his ship many times a day, and 
will soon find himself in great danger. No, he 
must sail according to the dictates of his under- 
standing, following the chart and the compass, 
and, therefore, he must often dash and plunge 
against the waves. So also in man's life. In or- 
der to reach the haven of rest and lasting happi- 
ness, he must above everything else follow the 
course of an enlightened understanding and not 
always the feelings. Yet we must at the same 
time respect the feelings for what they are worth, 
and learn from them. But as a rule the under- 
standing must guide the feelings, and the will 
control them, if possible. 

It is impossible for us, I think, to explain how 
the spirit is able to distinguish between the feel- 



175 
ings of pleasure and the feelings of pain. Yet 
we know that the spirit does so, and has such 
distinct feelings. The intensity of these feelings 
differs also very much in degree. The spirit must 
possess a sensorium of two distinct natures, by 
means of which we experience such feelings. This 
is nothing but natural and rational, inasmuch as 
we really need these natures, not only for our 
morals, but also for our general welfare. The 
sensorium for pain, for instance, serves only as a 
preventive against further similar experiences, as 
pain is not essential to our life. There being dan- 
gerous elements in the world, God has given us 
means by which, if we come in the slightest con- 
tact with them or under their influence, we learn 
to keep away from them, learn by first experience 
or by instruction from others, to be careful. A 
child that is obedient to its parents will not need 
to experience pain from handling fire. It would 
be foolish, indeed, if it should undertake to put 
its finger into the fire in order to learn for itself. 
By carelessness or ignorance many must suffer. 
Obedience to God's word and His natural and 
spiritual laws would protect us from many an 
evil and its painful consequences. 

Let us illustrate by the following diagram our 
idea of the possible feelings caused by the body 
and the faculties of the spirit upon the sensorium. 



176 



Diagram of the Sensorium. 



Scnsorium of 
Pleasure \ Pain 




Body 



Intellect. 



wm 



The arrows indicate both action and reaction. 
They indicate that the sensibility may act upon 
the body, the intellect or understanding, and the 
will, and also that these, again, namely, the body, 
the understanding, and the will, may act upon the 
sensibility. 

The effect of feelings upon the sensibility itself, 
and its reaction upon the bodily organism and 
upon the other faculties, is of vital importance 
not only to the individual himself, but also to 
other beings. 

There are different kinds of feelings, very dis- 
tinct in nature. The feelings immediately con- 
nected with the body are naturally of an inferior 
order, compared with those feelings which origi- 
nate in the spirit itself. 



177 
In respect to end or result, the feelings may lead 
to almost anything, to good or evil. This is a 
thing which we cannot previously ascertain or 
calculate with certainty. In this respect much 
depends upon the moral tenor of the spirit. So 
much, then, concerning the sensibility in a general 
way. 

2. Cause of Feelings. 

Feelings are effects of some cause or causes. 
A human being is a composition of matter and 
spirit. Man is, therefore, by necessity dependent 
for his life and growth on material and spiritual 
elements. The natural forces and the material 
world in which man lives and by which he is con- 
stantly influenced, constitute one of the great 
causes of man's feelings. We are also constantly 
under the influence of spiritual forces or powers, 
whether we know of it or not. Thus God, angels 
and our fellow men, yes, even the animals, all 
come in close contact with us in one way or an- 
other, and exercise their influence upon us. We 
therefore find, secondly, the spiritual world to be 
a mighty cause of man's feelings. These, then, 
matter and spirit, are the two great and general 
causes of feelings. 

12 



178 

3. Means of our Feelings. 

Every human individual is a cause, as well as 
a means, of his feelings. Thus the individual 
body and the spirit with its complexity of powers 
are the means of individual feelings. 

4. The Effects of Feelings. 

A. Upon Sensibility. 

The real effect of feelings is not easily ascer- 
tained beforehand, if it is ascertainable, for feel- 
ings change from pleasure to pain, or vice versa, 
in a moment. As a rule, however, we may state 
that the effect of a feeling depends on its cause, 
the strength or energy of the same, as well as on 
the manner in which the cause acts, the place, 
occasion, duration and condition of the means, 
and even on the condition of sensibility itself. It 
is plain that the condition of the recipient, that 
is, the sensibility ^itself, is of great importance. 
A mentally or physically strong and healthy per- 
son will endure much, while a weak or sick person 
can endure little or nothing. The effects of feel- 
ings, therefore, will vary in accordance with any 
or all of these conditions. 

B. The Effects upon the Body and upon the 
Other Faculties of the Spirit. 



179 
There is a limit to everything created, and this 
may also be said of the sensibility. Its capacity 
is, indeed, great, but the feelings sometimes rise 
and expand to overflowing. The sensibility will 
therefore at times react both upon the under- 
standing and upon the will. 

A feeling of great joy, for instance, will show 
its effects upon the body, especially in the expres- 
sions of the face, generally by a smile or even 
laughter, and often also in the quick motion of 
the body. A deep sorrow, on the other hand, will 
often cause the eyes to shed bitter tears, and the 
body will be almost too heavy for the sorrowing 
spirit. The feeling of wrath or anger will like- 
wise show itself in the expressions of the body. 

It is plain that these feelings of overflowing 
pleasure or pain will impel us to ascertain their 
respective causes, to provide for new ones of 
pleasure, and to avert or remove the causes of 
pain. We naturally wish to experience as much 
pleasure as we possibly can, and as little as pos- 
sible of pain. In order to get what we wish, we 
must sometimes invent something or make some 
new discovery. All inventions and discoveries 
and their applications are, indeed, the products 
of the understanding faculty, but to this activity 
of the understanding the feelings have contributed 
their due share. The feelings, therefore, have 



180 
great influence upon the intellect as an impetus 
to what is beneficial to man, but they may also be 
detrimental if not guided by reason. 

Upon the will the feelings may act directly or 
indirectly through the understanding. If, for 
instance, we wish to have a man do good, we must 
make him feel good. If not, the work will be 
twice as heavy and may not be accomplished at 
all. The feelings have a wonderful effect upon 
the will. Having gained the good will of a person, 
we have the entire person. 

5. The Aim of the Sensibility. 

We have said that all our feelings are resolv- 
able into two kinds, pleasant and unpleasant feel- 
ings. What is the real aim of such feelings ? The 
feelings of pleasure furnish the spirit with real 
enjoyment. In this world such feelings must be 
a foretaste, at least, of heaven. These feelings 
will also cause man to strive for those things 
which will make him happy. The feelings of pain, 
again, may be a natural consequence of transgres- 
sion of some natural or spiritual law, and there- 
fore serve as a direct and instant punishment for 
such transgressions. But these feelings may also 
at first experience give alarm of some imminent 
danger, and therefore arouse the individual in due 



181 
time to seek help for averting it. All these feel- 
ings of pain, however, are unnatural to man — 
though not the power by which these feelings are 
experienced — and therefore he shuns and hates 
them. Feelings of pain are, no doubt, a foretaste 
of eternal punishment. 

6. Kinds of Feelings. 

There are and must be at least three different 
kinds of feelings, whether of pleasure or pain, 
dependent upon the spirit's union with the body 
and upon the fact that the spirit itself has dif- 
ferent faculties with which the sensibility stands 
in a very intimate relation as a cofaculty. We 
therefore naturally call the first kind physical 
feelings; the second, intellectual feelings; the 
third, volitional feelings. 

We will now explain these feelings and their 
respective species. Of course it is not an easy 
task to classify all the feelings of which man is 
capable, and we do not pretend to make at this 
time an adequate classification. The feelings 
blend so wonderfully with each other that it seems 
almost impossible to arrive at a satisfactory clas- 
sification, especially with reference to species. 
The same cause and the same means may not 
always produce the same effect in every indi- 



182 
vidual. It is a fact that what in one individual 
produces a feeling of pleasure, may in another 
produce a feeling of pain, and vice versa. Fur- 
ther, the feelings vary in different individuals. 
Thus, for instance, one may like oranges and an- 
other dislike them. The feelings of each indi- 
vidual, therefore, must be respected in as far as 
they are natural, that is, feelings of a normal 
mind. Let us consider 

PHYSICAL FEELINGS. 

By physical feelings we mean those which the 
spirit experiences on account of its union with 
the body. These feelings, because of their inti- 
mate relation with the nervous system, are gener- 
ally called sensations. The nervous system is 
the means for mental currents to and from the 
spirit. The physical feelings are preeminently 
feelings of the soul, while all others may be feel- 
ings of the heart. The physical feelings, there- 
fore, are naturally of a lower order. 

There are at least three species of this kind of 
feelings, namely, vital sensations, organ sensa- 
tions and sexual or conjugal feelings. 

a) Vital Sensations. 

These sensations we call vital because they are 
absolutely necessary to earthly life, and accom- 



183 
pany the same from the beginning to the end 
of the spirit's union with the body. 

To this class we count the sensations of res- 
piration, nutrition, secretion, bodily activity or 
motion, health and strength. Let a living being 
get fresh air, for instance, and he will feel well; 
deprive him of it or attempt to stop the respira- 
tion, and he will fight the oppressor to the bitter 
end, in order to save his own life. As unpleasant 
vital sensations we may mention lack of fresh air, 
hunger and thirst, weakness and sickness, sleepi- 
ness or sleeplessness, undue waking and re- 
strained motion. 

b) Organ Sensations, 

By organ sensations we mean those feelings 
which the spirit experiences when an impression 
from the external or material world is made upon 
any of the sense organs, as the eye, the ear, the 
nose, the tongue, and the skin. 

The organ sensations are very numerous and 
very rich. These we have already spoken suffi- 
ciently of before. 

c) Sexual or Conjugal Feelings. 

These feelings are innate, natural cravings 
which are experienced at the age of maturity and 
during the remainder of life. These are feelings 



184 
which are necessary particularly for the propa- 
gation of the race, and for family life in general. 
These sensations should be carefully guarded even 
in youth and childhood, and should never be ridi- 
culed or abused, as is often the case. No feelings 
are so misunderstood and abused as these, both 
among old and young. This should not be so, for 
these are feelings which in due time confer the 
true title of manhood and womanhood. The im- 
portance of these feelings may be drawn from 
the fact that they are the last ones in order of 
development, and come next after the develop- 
ment of man's moral nature. 

Sexual feelings come from the soul, and influ- 
ence directly the will power. Nevertheless these 
sensations ought to be controlled by moral intel- 
ligence. Sometimes these sensations are called 
instinctive, because they are not dependent upon 
the intellect but merely upon perception. 

INTELLECTUAL FEELINGS. 

Intellectual feelings are those which we expe- 
rience by means of our understanding faculty. 
We understand, therefore we feel. 

These feelings may be divided into two classes, 
namely, subjective feelings and objective feelings. 
By the former we mean those feelings which we 
experience by virtue of our own mental powers, 



185 
and by the latter those feelings which we expe- 
rience by the observation or study of things per- 
taining to the material and the spiritual world. 
There are several important species of intellectual 
feelings. It is very difficult, however, to find 
suitable words adequately to denote the species 
in question. As species of subjective feelings we 
would mention imaginative feelings, potential 
feelings, economic or industrial feelings, feelings 
of the ludicrous or comical, aesthetic, moral, and 
religious feelings. As species of the objective feel- 
ings we would mention natural or realistic feel- 
ings and supernatural or idealistic feelings. 

SUBJECTIVE FEELINGS. 

a) Imaginative Feelings. 

By imaginative feelings we mean those which 
arise within our mind by virtue of the power of 
imagination. The many mental objects which 
imagination creates within the spirit cannot but 
have more or less effect upon sensibility. By this 
power of mind the inventor, for instance, navi- 
gates the air with his aeroplane or balloon, and 
experiences to some degree the ecstasies of soar- 
ing above the earth long before he ever construct- 
ed the airship or balloon; the mathematician cal- 
culating the distance between the earth and the 



186 
stars, is filled with awe ; long before he has drawn 
it on his paper, the architect rejoices at the costly- 
palace with its beauty of form ; the sculptor looks 
with the eye of imagination upon an uncouth piece 
of marble and sees a well modeled human form 
spring out of it, long before he has touched the 
stone with his chisel; the musician imagines a 
composition soon to be placed before an orchestra, 
and already hears the harmony produced by the 
many different instruments, and his heart is in 
anticipation filled with sweet music; the theolo- 
gian pictures to himself an awe-inspiring God 
who has made heaven and earth, and with fear 
and love he worships Him in his heart. Indeed, 
imagination will always furnish a world of feel- 
ings! 

b) Potential Feelings. 

A person knowing his own power, physical and 
mental, cannot but appreciate the value of a sound 
body and a perfect mind. The bodily organism, 
its composition and functions, is a wonder in 
itself. Still more so is the spirit with its won- 
derful powers of sensibility, intellect and will. 
All these powers of the spirit afford various 
feelings of pleasure. A deformed or maimed 
body, again, as well as a defective mind, or poor 
memory, cannot but throw a constant gloom over 
one's life. 



187 
By potential feelings, therefore, we mean those 
feelings which we experience in considering our 
own physical and mental worth. An expression 
of this kind of feelings we may find in the follow- 
ing words: "I will give thanks unto thee; for I 
am fearfully and wonderfully made: wonderful 
are thy works and that my soul knoweth right 
well" (Ps. 139: 14.) This is true self-esteem. 

c) Economical or Industrial Feelings. 

Man is born for work. Hence the divine decla- 
ration, "If any will not work, neither let him 
eat" (2 Thess. 3: 10). The results of man's toil 
and the fruits of his labor are by necessity inter- 
woven with his life, and he cannot help feeling 
their importance. By industrial feelings, there- 
fore, we mean those which are the result of phys- 
ical and mental labor and its fruit. Either we 
do or we do not take interest and pleasure in the 
very act of labor. Having accomplished a task, 
we feel a certain satisfaction. The constant wor- 
ry of our life is, no doubt, the thought of success 
or failure. Success in our work brings us a full 
measure of joy and happiness. Failure, again, 
brings us pain and much dissatisfaction. 

The explorer, for instance, who finds a new 
world; the inventor who sees the final realization 
of his idea; the mathematician who has wrestled 



188 
with a difficult problem and finds, at last, a happy 
solution ; the laborer having accomplished his task 
and received his pay; the business man looking 
over his accounts and finding a good earning for 
the day or year — all rejoice at their respective 
success. And then, on the other hand, the fail- 
ure! Who can describe the feelings of such an 
experience? The apostles' answer to the Lord 
at the coast of the sea of Galilee repeats itself in 
manifold ways, "Master, we have toiled all the 
night, and have taken nothing." 1 

d) Feelings of the Ludicrous or Comical 

Feelings of this kind are those which arise in 
the mind's apprehension of anything incongruous, 
ludicrous, or comical, whether in man himself, 
his words, actions, and works, or in nature. The 
power of imagination, especially wit, is often a 
great cause of this kind of feelings. These are 
feelings which make man smile, and cause him 
to burst out into laughter. 

i 

e) Aesthetic Feelings. 

When we think of that which is beautiful or 
sublime we experience certain feelings which we 
call aesthetic feelings. Our mind may dwell, for 



1) Luke 5: 5. 



189 
instance, upon the works wrought in nature by 
the Creator, or upon works of art made by man 
himself. We look at the sky in the day time, at 
sunrise or at sunset, and notice the beautiful 
colors of the cloud formations ; we behold the star- 
ry firmament with its moon at night and its 
shifting silvery clouds, or we behold the gran- 
deur of the aurora borealis ; we behold the beauti- 
ful flowers upon the earth and consider the lilies 
of the field arrayed in the most beautiful colors, 
and we marvel at all this beauty. We feel deeply 
the effects of all the splendor that God has 
wrought; we feel as it were the very presence of 
the Almighty Spirit revealed in nature. The 
fine arts are also a cause of feelings of a similar 
nature. There are many beautiful things that 
man has wrought which invite our admiration, as, 
for instance, the products of sculpture, painting, 
music, poetry, etc. We marvel at the spirit which 
is behind or hidden in every masterpiece of art. 

Of course we feel the effect of the beautiful and 
sublime in nature or in art more or less by mere 
perception, but by studying and thinking of beau- 
tiful objects our feelings grow more and more in 
intensity. 

Harmony in things or in music gives us pleas- 
ure ; disharmony or ugliness gives us pain. 



190 

f ) Moral Feelings. 

These are feelings which we experience by vir- 
tue of the conscience. Moral feelings are always 
feelings of the heart. These feelings we may also 
call ethical feelings. 

By moral or ethical feelings we mean those feel- 
ings which arise from a sense of right and wrong, 
of what is true or false. We rejoice at whatever 
is right and true. Provided our mind has not 
become perverted we feel indignation at whatever 
we know is wrong or false. We feel that whoso- 
ever does wrong should be punished, and we feel 
also that whosoever does right should be rewarded 
in this or in the future world. 

Man is by creation bound to God to be in union 
with him, and he is, therefore, always under obli- 
gation to serve God. A breach of this obligation 
must be awful and deeply felt, when the conscience 
has been enlightened. There is an indelible ought 
or must for ever inscribed into man's moral na- 
ture. By this inscription every human being is 
a law unto himself, that is, he carries always with 
him in his heart the expression of God's will. 

This expression of God's will in a human heart 
consists in a personal understanding of right and 
wrong conduct, by virtue of which the thinking 
faculty in reasoning must accuse or excuse the 
conduct. In accordance with this reasoning there 



191 
follow, as a necessary consequence, the most bliss- 
ful feelings of self -approbation, as peace and joy, 
or the most painful feelings of self-accusation or 
guilt, as remorse and fear. 

The apostle Paul could assert in truth : "I have 
finished the course, I have kept the faith, hence- 
forth there is laid up for me the crown of right- 
eousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, 
shall give to me at that day," (2 Tim. 4:8). The 
knowledge of having led such a life must have 
been a source of much pleasure. 

How differently the confessions of Cain and 
Judas Iscariot sound from that of the apostle just 
mentioned! Listen! Cain said: "Mine iniquity 

is greater than I can bear and it shall come 

to pass, that whosoever findeth me shall slay me" 
(Genesis 4: 14); and Judas Iscariot confesses: 
"I have sinned in that I betrayed innocent blood 

and he cast down the pieces of silver into 

the sanctuary, and departed, and he went away 
and hanged himself." 1 And why? Because his 
conscience smote him and accused him. What 
terrible feelings of remorse and fear ! 

On account of the sense of obligation and the 
moral law, man feels the burden of his great 
responsibility. For by the divine law he is re- 
sponsible, not only to God, in the first place, but 



1) Matt.!27:4. 



192 
also to his fellow men, in so far as God has insti- 
tuted among men authority, government, which 
is a minister of God, as an avenger. for wrath to 
him that doeth evil and a reward and protection 
to him that doeth good. 

Man, then, has moral duties which he must 
perform, if he would feel truly happy. If he does 
not perform his duties to God and his fellow 
beings, he will be a most miserable creature, both 
in this world and in the world to come. 

g) Religious Feelings. 

In so far as he is made in the image of God, 
man is the direct offspring of God. Man's own 
nature, particularly his conscience, bears witness 
to his divine relationship. No sane person would 
try to annul this fact. The whole history of man 
corroborates this statement. By means of man's 
conscience God is manifest in every human being, 
and by means of the created world the invisible 
things of God are clearly seen, His everlasting 
power and divinity. 

When the heathen separated themselves from 
God by sin, they could not help themselves, but 
must place something else in God's place, accord- 
ing to their vain reasonings, and so they insti- 
tuted idolatry, worshiping and serving the crea- 
ture instead of the Creator. 



193 

Man's personal attitude to God we call his reli- 
gion. As this attitude is true or false, his worship 
will be true or false. The feelings which must 
by necessity arise from man's religion depend 
upon his attitude toward God. 

There are some fundamental and essential ele- 
ments without which there can be no religion at 
all. These are: 1) an innate inclination in man 
for religion; this every human being possesses; 
2) knowledge concerning God; 3) faith or belief 
in God, and 4) a love or fear of that God. This 
the apostle of the Lord also expresses when he 
says : "How then shall they call on him in whom 
they have not believed? and how shall they believe 
in him whom they have not heard?" (Rom. 10: 
14). 

Natural religion, or the religion of the heathen, 
depends upon his knowledge of God as He has 
revealed Himself in the conscience and in creation. 
This knowledge, however, the heathen have dis- 
carded, and because of that their heart was dark- 
ened (Rom. 1 : 21) . In order to bring the heathen 
to a right attitude to the living and only true God, 
supernatural knowledge is necessary, and this is 
found in the Gospel. 

The knowledge of God cannot but cause in man 
the deepest emotions. At the very thought of 
the Almighty God he must feel the most intense 

13 



194 
elevation and at the same time the most intense 
resignation, considering his own sinful state. And 
learning from the Gospel of the Lord Jesus Christ 
that the righteous God is our heavenly Father 
who loved the world so that He sent His only- 
begotten Son to die for us and redeem us by 
His blood; and that God, for His Son's sake, will 
forgive us all our sins when we believe in Him, 
and give us eternal life, how can a sinner but 
feel his unworthiness, humble himself before God, 
put his trust in Him and love Him ! And having 
become united with God through faith in Christ 
Jesus, man will experience that joy and peace of 
mind which passeth human understanding. 

As religious feelings we find faith, elevation, 
resignation or humility, hope, love or fear, peace, 
joy, adoration, and thankfulness. 

Religion and worship belong to the heart of 
man ; they have followed humanity from its cradle 
and will follow it to the grave and beyond. True 
religious feelings are indispensable to a really 
happy life, 

OBJECTIVE FEELINGS. 

So far we have studied the feelings of man 
as having their source or cause in his own intel- 
lect, and these we have called subjective feelings. 
We now come to the study of the objective feel- 



195 
ings. By this kind of feelings we mean those 
which have their cause outside of the personal 
ego. Objective feelings we may divide into two 
classes, namely, natural or realistic feelings and 
supernatural or idealistic feelings. 

a) Natural or Realistic Feelings. 

By this kind of feelings we mean those which 
are caused by the study of the material world. 
There are, indeed, many things in the material 
world which may cause in us various feelings. But 
we often feel without understanding what we 
feel. By learning to understand the causes of 
feelings we feel still more. Take, for instance, 
a drop of water. This fluid we may see, feel 
with our hand, taste, or hear its dropping. But 
suppose we also study the water. We will then 
learn that it is a composition of two gases — 
hydrogen and oxygen — in the proportion of two 
volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen; 
that water is formed when hydrogen burns in 
the air, combining with oxygen ; that these gases 
are invisible, tasteless and inodorous; that oxy- 
gen burns with a brilliant light and hydrogen 
with a very slightly blue flame, etc. Surely the 
understanding of these things will cause us to 
feel and wonder more than if we did not under- 
stand them. Who could even imagine before that 



196 
the elements of water would burn! This is only 
one example of what the study of nature brings 
to our sensibility. 

b) Supernatural or Idealistic Feelings. 

By this kind of feelings we mean those which 
are caused by the study of the spiritual world. 

We are living in a world not only of matter but 
also of spirit. We are, indeed, ourselves a part 
of the spiritual world, in so far as we have a 
spirit. God is a spirit, yet the workings of His 
divine hand may be seen in the history of the 
world as guiding the affairs of men according to 
His will. He also holds the laws of nature in 
His hand, and will in due season create a new 
heaven and a new earth. There is also a world 
of angels. They certainly make their influence 
felt even among men. The human spirit, though 
moving about in a corporeal body, is unseen. But 
what things the human spirit has accomplished! 
What would become of the present world without 
the workings of the human spirit! Even the 
spiritual power of the animals is constantly work- 
ing in the world, sometimes serving man and 
sometimes frightening him. A knowledge of all 
these spiritual powers must cause us to feel many 
things of which we otherwise would have no 
experience. 



197 
Here is an illustration from the angelic world 
as given by the highest authority, the Lord Him- 
self : "Simon, Simon, behold Satan asked to have 
you, that he might sift you as wheat ; but I made 
supplication for thee, that thy faith fail not" 
(Luke 22: 31). Another: "The unclean spirit 
when he is gone out of the man, passeth through 
waterless places, seeking rest; and finding none 
he saith, I will turn back unto my house whence 
I came out. And when he is come, he findeth it 
swept and garnished. Then goeth he and taketn 
to him seven other spirits more evil than himself ; 
and they enter in and dwell there; and the last 
state of that man becometh worse than the first" 
(Matt. 12: 45). Still another: "There met him 
out of the tombs a man with an unclean spirit 
who had his dwelling in the tombs: and no man 
could any more bind him, no, not with a chain; 
because that he had been often bound with fetters 
and chains and the chains had been rent asunder 
by him, and the fetters broken in pieces: and 
no man had strength to tame him. And always, 
night and day, in the tombs and in the mountains, 
he was crying out, and cutting himself with 
stones" (Mark 5: 1 — 20). 

These examples show plainly the influence of 
the spiritual world upon man. Indeed, we feel 
even now a certain fear of what may occur at 



198 
any time. Of course the good angels and God 
Himself are working among us, and take great 
interest in our welfare and eternal salvation. 

If we always understood the spiritual powers 
working among us even in our day, we should 
certainly fear many a human being as if the 
Evil One himself were in our presence, and love 
many a person as if God were present. There 
are indeed persons who have been endowed with 
the gift to "prove the spirits." 1 

The pleasant feelings caused by the assurance 
of the presence of God and of His holy angels and 
the spirits of good friends are indescribable. A 
true Christian knows them by experience. 

VOLITIONAL FEELINGS. 

Volitional feelings are those which the spirit 
experiences by virtue of the will power. We will 
something, and therefore we feel. Volitional feel- 
ings are very strong, and are capable of bringing 
the whole person at any time into some kind of 
activity. The faculty of the understanding is also 
active in connection with the will, but the latter 
is the predominant power in this case, and hence 
we call these feelings volitional. 

As volitional feelings we find elective feelings, 
inclinations, and desires. 

1) 1 John 4: 1. 



199 
a) Elective Feelings, 

These are feelings which arise from the activ- 
ities of the will power in choice, decision, and 
execution. 

It is impossible for a person to exercise his 
volitional functions, upon which his temporal and 
eternal welfare may depend, without his expe- 
riencing some feelings as a result. Think for a 
moment of a child in the choice of obeying or dis- 
obeying its parents or some other authority ! Think 
of a grown up and responsible person in the 
act of choice with reference to God's commands ! 
Or think of any person in the choice of his pur- 
suits of life, in choosing a vocation, for instance, 
or a companion for life. Indeed, such an exercise 
of the will must be accompanied by various feel- 
ings of both fear and trembling, uncertainty and 
hope. 

The decision having been made, the feelings 
increase in intensity until they find an outlet in 
action. If the decision be made in accordance 
with divine and human justice, the individual 
will certainly experience feelings of satisfaction; 
if not, there will be a feeling of unrest and anx- 
iety. The decision, however, may as yet be 
reversed, if necessary, and the feelings may at 
once change from unrest to peace of mind. A 
decision being carried out or executed, the feel- 



200 
ings, whatever they may be, will reach their cli- 
max of pleasure or pain. 

b) Inclinations. 

These are feelings which arise from the very 
nature of our spirit, by virtue of which we have 
a disposition more favorable to one thing than 
to another. Thus, it is a natural inclination to 
prefer life to death ; strength to weakness ; to love 
one's kin, home, and country more than strangers 
and foreign countries; to prefer harmony, the 
beautiful and sublime, to disharmony and that 
which is ugly; the good, true, and right, to evil, 
falsehood, and wrong; pleasure to pain, joy to 
sorrow, hope to despair. 

These preferences or inclinations are, no doubt, 
residues in the human spirit of a state of perfec- 
tion and innocence, in which they must have been 
predominant. Even now in man's sinful state, 
these inclinations point to the final realization of 
man's salvation and eternal bliss. Without these 
feelings man would be a very low order of being. 

c) Desires. 

Desires are deep-rooted feelings, natural crav- 
ings of the spirit. As these feelings are very 
intense, they have sometimes been confounded 
with the will power. Indeed, the will itself is 



201 
often strongly influenced by these feelings, which 
may at times even control the will. 

Though very irritating or annoying, these feel- 
ings should not be suppressed, either by the indi- 
vidual himself or by any other person, for they 
are absolutely necessary for the true development 
and well-being of man, in as far as they are nat- 
ural desires. 

As natural or normal desires we find the desires 
of individual existence or the right to live as 
long as Providence permits; of liberty, of prop- 
erty, of honor, of power, of society. All these 
are natural feelings. The negative phase of these 
feelings, or the privation of natural desires, is 
very unpleasant. Think, for instance, of the feel- 
ings at the approach of death, of restraint of 
liberty or imprisonment; of poverty, of disrepute 
or dishonor; of inability or retrenchment of 
power. 

Because of or through sin the human spirit has 
become so perverted that the desires often develop 
into unnatural, excessive and morbid longings. 
These we then call lusts or passions. Among such 
abnormal or unnatural desires we will mention 
the impatient desire to die whenever anything 
goes against one's will; of lawlessness or unre- 
straint; covetousness, pride, imperiousness, van- 
ity, or selfishness. These are very dangerous feel- 



202 
ings, at the same time that they must be very 
unpleasant, not only to the individual himself but 
also to society. 

Any opposition or restraint or disregard for 
the natural desires will cause the most intense 
indignation, and any individual or society will 
sacrifice almost anything, even life, for the right 
of these feelings and their satisfaction. 

The volitional feelings, especially the desires, 
should be carefully guarded by the intellect. 




THE UNDERSTANDING. 



Diagram of the Understanding. 




J Recolection. 
'Conception. 
*&// Judgment 
.11 /Reasoning. 
J$ Imagination. 
£ J Conscienc 




The Understanding. 



Heart 



A. 
Spirit] 

|B. Soul 




QUESTIONS. 

1 What is the understanding? 

2 What constitutes this faculty? 

3 What faculties may influence the understanding? 

4 In what do all higher emotions and volitions have 
their root? 

5 What is perception? 

6 What faculty is first exercised and developed? 

7 How does perception make itself known? 

8 What is meant my impressions? 

9 Are all impressions retained by memory? 

10 Are, then, impressions which are not retained by 
memory entirely in vain? Why? 

11 What kind of perception must first have taken place 
in man? 

12 What are percepts? 

13 What are retents? 

14 What faculties are the first to be affected by percep- 
tion? 

15 In what state does perception become subordinate 
to the will? 

16 In what relation does perception stand with respect 
to the activities of the other faculties? 



206 

17 What is the function of perception? 

18 Explain the. rapidity of the spirit's work in percep- 
tion. 

19 Upon what does the durability, or depth, of an im- 
pression depend? 

20 Upon what does the clearness of an impression de- 
pend? 

21 What relation has perception to the acquisition of 
knowledge and memory? 

22 Could a human being live in this world without the 
faculty of perception? Why? 

23 Have all human individuals the same power of per- 
ception ? 

24 What effect will the loss of a sense-organ have upon 
the other sense-organs? Explain. 

25 Why do some persons close their eyes when thinking? 

26 What is the thinking faculty? 

27 What is an act of thinking? 

28 In what relation do perception and the thinking 
faculty stand to each other with respect to their 
activities ? 

29 Is thinking always dependent on direct perception? 
Why? 

30 With what material does the thinking faculty work ? 

31 What is involved in an act of thinking? Explain. 

32 What are the questions in which the spirit interests 
itself in the thinking faculty ? 

33 What do we call in general the products of this 
faculty ? 

34 Is there more than one way or mode of thinking? 

35 What is meant by "voluntary memory"? 

36 Should we call this work of the spirit memory at all? 



207 

37 Which are the two subfacilities of the intellect? 

38 Can we think without the aid of memory ? 

39 What is recollection? 

40 What is the need of recollection? 

41 Is the spirit always successful in an act of recollec- 
tion? 

42 What is the cause of memory refusing to give up a 
seemingly lost idea? 

43 What is conception? 

44 What is the literal meaning of the word? 

45 Explain an act of conception. 

46 Does the concept flower embrace one or more single 
impressions ? 

47 Is the word white a single or a compound idea? 

48 Are are words we use in a language real or imagin- 
ary things, or are they "empty nothings"? 

49 What, then, do the words stand for? 

50 Have even words formed by the power of imagina- 
tion something real in themselves? 

51 How is a retent acquired? 

52 Plow is a concept acquired ? 

53 What, then, is the difference between a retent and a 
concept ? 

54 Is an impression necessarily acted upon by memory? 

55 Is a retent acted upon by memory? Why? 

56 What do we learn by mere perception? 

57 What do we ascertain by conception? 

58 What is the spirit really doing in an act of concep- 
tion? 

59 What is the difference between a single and a general 
concept ? 

60 By what general faculty do we acquire language? 



208 

61 What name may we give to each word? 

62 What is the derivation of the word term? 

63 Did our first parents have a ready made language 
for their use, or did they have to acquire it ? 

64 How do we acquire a language? 

65 What is judgment? 

66 Was there no judgment at all in conception? 

67 What is the difference between an act of conception 
and an act of judgment? 

68 What is the product of conception? 

69 What is the product of judgment ? 

70 Give an example of a proposition. 

71 What is reasoning? 

72 What is the difference between an act of judgment 
and an act of reasoning? 

73 Give an example of reasoning. 

74 State the general methods of reasoning. 

75 What is induction ? 

76 What do we gain especially by reasoning? 

77 What is science? 

78 In what mode of thinking do we find that the great- 
est men of intelligence excel? 

79 What is imagination? 

80 Has the concept formed by imagination no reality 
at all? 

81 Does the spirit create new material in an act of 
imagination ? 

82 What does the spirit make new in imagination? 

83 Explain the workings of imagination. 

84 Who can imagine? 

85 When and how may the spirit imagine? 



209 

86 Does imagination work within its own sphere as a 
faculty, or may it also enter the domain of other 
faculties ? 

87 What restraint should be put upon imagination? 

88 Of what value may imagination be with reference 
to thought proper ? 

89 What role may imagination play among uneducated 
and uncivilized people? 

90 What is phantasm? 

91 What is conscience? 

92 Is conscience a faculty of the soul or of the heart ? 

93 Give the derivation of the word conscience. 

94 What does conscience mean to the individual? 

95 Has any human individual a right to judge another 
person's conscience? 

96 Who is the only judge of our conscience? 

97 Has the conscience any influence upon sensibility? 

98 Is conscience preeminently the exercise of moral feel- 
ings or of moral reason? 

99 Are the moral feelings a cause or an effect of con- 
science ? 

100 Does conscience stand above, or is it subordinate to 
the power of the will with respect to authority? 

101 Is conscience a created power, or is it an absolute 
"voice of God" in man's spirit? 

102 In what relation does conscience stand to the other 
faculties of the mind with respect to their develop- 
ment? 

103 Does a child, during its first year, show any signs 
of the power of conscience? Why? 

104 Is the conscience dependent on knowledge for its 
true development? 

14 



210 

105 What attributes do the Scriptures ascribe to con- 
science ? 

106 When can a human being by right appeal to his 
own conscience as the highest tribunal in this 
world ? 

107 What if the whole world be against him ? 

108 What is meant by "common sense" in morals? 

109 What is the office of conscience ? 

110 What is the spirit likened unto with respect to the 
understanding ? 

111 How can we enlarge our field of spiritual observa- 
tion and operation? 

112 Is our understanding limited? 

113 What, then, should be our attitude towards reve- 
lation ? 



THE UNDERSTANDING. 

The understanding is that general faculty by 
means of which the spirit acquires material for 
knowledge and by which it thinks. In this gen- 
eral faculty we find two special faculties, namely, 
perception and thinking, or the intellect. These 
two constitute the general faculty of the under- 
standing. 

This, is the faculty upon which all rational acts 
depend. It is the directing and leading faculty 
of the mind, though very often the other general 
faculties, the sensibility and the will, may greatly 
influence it. 

A person acting without the light of the under- 
standing, or suppressing it, acts more like a brute 
than a rational being. All higher emotions and 
volitions have their root in the understanding. 
This is, therefore, a very important faculty of the 
spirit. It is also a creative and an inventive fac- 
ulty. Let us proceed to explain more in detail the 
special faculties. 



212 

PERCEPTION. 

Perception is that special faculty of the under- 
standing by which the spirit through the sense- 
organs receives and carries over impressions into 
the spiritual essence. 

Perception is the first acting faculty of the 
spirit. It makes itself known particularly by 
means of the vital sensations and the organ- 
sensations. 

By impressions upon the spiritual essence re- 
ceived in the act of perception, we mean simply 
affections which may or may not be remembered ; 
for not every impression upon the mind will affect 
the memory so as to leave a retent. Yet the im- 
pressions which we do not remember are not in 
vain. They have all surely had their peculiar 
mission. Perception in early infancy, for in- 
stance, will affect both the sensibility and the 
will, and sometimes very powerfully. The infant 
will, therefore, give vent to its feelings and show 
its will power long before it becomes fully self- 
conscious. Many months before the infant has 
been brought into the world as a free individual 
at the mother's bosom, perception has to some 
extent been active. For in the very earliest de- 
velopment of a human being, the sense of touch 
must have been exercised as the first sense by 



213 
which the spirit is brought in correspondence with 
its bodily organism. This is absolutely necessary 
on account of the vital functions in the nourish- 
ment of the body. As soon as the infant has 
become a free individual by birth it will see, hear, 
tasie, and smell. Meanwhile, memory and the 
thinking faculty remain seemingly dormant dur- 
ing the first years. 

All the impressions thus received through per- 
ception, whether they be remembered or not, we 
will call percepts, as being the first fruit of this 
faculty. Those impressions, again, which we are 
likely to remember we will call retents, being 
percepts retained by the spirit and made objects 
of thought. 

In its first activities perception will affect only 
the sensibility and the will. Later it will work in 
perfect harmony with the thinking faculty and 
the will. In the spirit's self-conscious state per- 
ception is subordinate to the will. In this state 
I can, for instance, see, hear, smell, taste, and feel 
as I please. I can close my eyes at will, avoid 
hearing certain things or direct my thoughts from 
one thing to another. As soon as the thinking 
faculty has become active, perception will give 
great aid and impetus to its activities. For in this 
state, when I see or hear or otherwise perceive 
anything, I at once may think of that which I see 



214 
or hear, and my will power may thereby be greatly 
aroused and put into immediate action. 

Perception, then, is a necessary condition for 
all the other faculties with respect to their activ- 
ities, as it causes feelings in the sensibility and 
furnishes material for thought and gives the will 
reason to act. 

The spirit perceives or apprehends only that 
something is, not what it is, or where, why, how, 
or when it is. To ascertain these latter things 
belongs to the thinking faculty, which is developed 
later than the faculty of perception. I hear a 
song, I see a beautiful flower, I also smell the 
sweet scent of that flower, I take hold of it with 
my hand and feel its soft substance. I taste of an 
apple. By these experiences I become acquainted 
with several objects or things by means of the 
sense-organs, not to speak of the internal sensa- 
tions of which I become aware, as of my own 
body's condition in hunger, thirst and the like, and 
receive an impression thereof into my spirit. In 
an act of perception per se there is no predica- 
tion. The function of perception is mainly the 
becoming aware of something and the carrying 
the same into the spiritual essence. 

The rapidity with which the spirit in the fac- 
ulty of perception acts is marvelous. In less than 
a second I may receive several distinct impres- 



215 
sions. I see a flower, its form and beautiful colors, 
the place where it stands, its nearest surround- 
ings ; but although seemingly all these impressions 
were received instantly, the faculty of perception 
acted through a single sense-organ several times, 
and each act produced a single impression. Thus 
there must have been first, perhaps, an impression 
of the form of the flower, next in order, an im- 
pression of the colors, and so on. It is, of course, 
very difficult, if not impossible, to decide whether 
the form or the color of the flower made the first 
impression upon the spirit. One of them, how- 
ever, must have had the first chance in this mat- 
ter. The thing most striking to any of the sense- 
organs will, no doubt, have the preference as to 
time of impression. This is, at least, very natural. 

The durability, or depth, of an impression in a 
person's self-conscious state depends upon the 
time and the nature of attention given in percep- 
tion and in thinking. The longer the time and 
the more acute the attention, the deeper will be the 
impression upon the spirit, and also the more 
lasting. The clearness of the impression will de- 
pend particularly upon the action of the thinking 
faculty. 

Perception is, as we have seen, a fundamental 
faculty in the acquisition of material knowledge. 
By means of this faculty it is possible to acquire 



216 
knowledge also of immaterial or spiritual things. 
The power of imagination, for instance, must base 
its creations upon material impressions. Percep- 
tion, then, is not only useful, but absolutely neces- 
sary, in the acquisition of knowledge. With re- 
spect to external things it is an absolute condition 
for memory. For if there is nothing introduced 
into the spirit from the outside world, if there be 
no impressions, there will be nothing to remem- 
ber. Without perception, as a condition, there 
would be no feelings in the sensibility, no think- 
ing, no volition. No person could live without it. 

The power of perception, however, differs very 
much in different individuals, even when all the 
sense-organs are in normal condition. It is a fact 
that when a certain sense-organ is lost, one or 
more of the remaining ones become strengthened. 
Why it should be so may not be so easy to explain, 
but it is at least natural to suppose that the spirit 
by the loss of one organ feels the burden of this 
loss and is, therefore, compelled by circumstances 
to concentrate the spiritual powers so much the 
more on those in use. It is also a common ex- 
perience that in profound thinking we sometimes 
close our eyes in order to concentrate our 
thoughts. A blind person will rely upon his or- 
gan of hearing and particularly upon that of 
touch. A deaf person, again, will learn to under- 



317 

stand the words of a friend by watching the move- 
ments and position of his lips, and will perceive 
with his eye, and by these means even perceive 
when a change is made from one language to an- 
other. A person endowed with all sense-organs 
would hardly become so keen in his power of per- 
ception. The loss which a person must sustain 
by defective sense-organs is incalculable, espe- 
cially when the defect concerns the eye or the ear. 
We have now seen what perception is, its rela- 
tion to other faculties, its functions and import- 
ance. We will now consider a still higher faculty 
in its own sphere, namely, 

THE THINKING FACULTY OR INTELLECT. 

The thinking faculty is that special faculty of 
the understanding by which the spirit with the 
immediate aid of memory judges the impressions 
acquired by perception. For this power of the 
spirit we may substitute the word intellect or 
reason. Reason is nothing but the innate power 
of the spirit, exercised in its self-conscious state 
in thinking and memory. Of course, on account 
of the spirits twofold nature, there must of neces- 
sity be a higher and a lower reason. The lower 
reason is exercised by the soul, the higher by the 
heart of the spirit. Reason is, therefore, the same 



218 
thing as the thinking faculty, and when we use 
the word intellect, which means exactly the same 
power, we use it only for the sake of convenience. 
Reasoning is an act of the thinking faculty. The 
mental product of this faculty is thought. Thought 
being expressed in one way or other, it becomes 
possible for man to ascertain its intrinsic value. 
There is, therefore, nothing "mysterious" at all 
with respect to reason, in our opinion. We may 
also call this power the rational faculty of man. 

An act of thinking is always a self-conscious 
effort of the mind. By this faculty I may im- 
mediately think of the things I perceive, but in 
order of time I must first perceive, before I can 
think. Our thinking is not at all dependent in 
every case on direct or immediate perception, for 
most of our thinking is done after perception has 
taken place. The materials with which our think- 
ing faculty works consist of mental objects, re- 
tents or concepts in the spirit. 

An act of thinking involves two things, com- 
parison and discrimination. In order to compare 
we must have at least two things or objects. In 
discrimination we ascertain whether those things 
or objects agree or disagree. In thinking we al- 
ways assert or predicate something. By this fac- 
ulty the spirit inquires into things, and asks such 
questions as these : What is it? Why is it so or so ? 



219 
Where is it? How and when? and the like. The 
products of this faculty is called, by a general 
term, thought, which embraces concepts, proposi- 
tions, and syllogisms. 

There are several modes of thinking, and in all 
our thinking processes we may be in constant 
need of an auxiliary power to reach a sound con- 
clusion. This assistant is often called a "volun- 
tary memory" which is not memory proper. We 
call it simply recollection. To the faculty of think- 
ing we must also count two subfaculties, namely, 
imagination and conscience. 

In order to think, it is necessary to have mem- 
ory, to which and from which the thinking faculty 
always must look for its material, and in perform- 
ing this work the spirit will often have to exert 
itself to the utmost. 

1. Recollection. 

Recollection is a combined effort of the thinking 
faculty and the will to find in memory certain 
ideas necessary in a certain line of thought. This 
combined effort is necessary because of failure of 
the association of ideas to give up at the time of 
need the proper idea or ideas in a process of 
thought. Recollection is, therefore, a certain peri- 
odical checking or arresting of the association of 



220 
ideas, and a penetrating and a searching into the 
depths of the spirit. This is sometimes a work 
that will last not only for a second or a minute, 
but for hours and days, and even then it may 
prove ineffectual. But if the idea once finds a 
place in memory it is there, and afterwards it may 
reappear in our mind like a flash of light. Then 
is the time to grasp it, so that it will not again 
disappear. 

The cause of this inefficiency of memory to give 
up at once the idea wished for, or to come as by 
itself, may be traced to several things, but espe- 
cially to a weak impression and a lack of due at- 
tention in the act of perception, or to negligence 
in reviewing the retents. For the more we review 
with attention the retents, the more fixed they 
will become in our memory and, therefore, the 
more easily recalled. 

2. Conception. 

Conception is that mode of thinking by which 
the spirit compares retents and forms them into 
distinct words or ideas. 

The word conception means literally "to take" 
or "put together", and thus explains by its mean- 
ning the very mode of the spirit's activity in con- 
ception. What, then, is it that the thinking fac- 



221 
ulty puts together ? Let us see. We will consider 
a flower. We perceive its form, its soft substance, 
its beautiful colors, its sweet odor. Perception 
makes these impressions upon the spirit. All these 
impressions, retents, are by this mode of thinking 
taken together and formed into one individual 
object so that when we hear the word flower we 
understand what is meant thereby. This particu- 
lar flower may be given an individual name, by 
which it may be distinguished from other flowers. 
We know, then, that a flower is quite a different 
thing from other objects, as, for instance, a tree. 
The mental object, flower, thus formed by the 
thinking faculty, we call a concept. But even a 
single impression or idea may by this process or 
mode of thinking become a concept by itself, that 
is, without being taken together with other ideas 
into one whole. Take, for instance, the single 
idea white with reference to the flower. By ex- 
perience we find that there are other objects which 
possess this property. Here is a white house, 
there a white dove, and so on. This single idea, 
white, connected with the concept flower, we thus 
find to be a property not exclusively belonging to 
one object, but to several other objects of different 
natures. White or whiteness, therefore, will be a 
concept by itself, so that whenever we find this 
concept expressed by speech or by writing, we 



222 
know what is meant thereby. We know that it is 
quite different from red, yellow, or blue. 

But when I assert: the dove is white, or say: 
a white flower, it is presupposed that I already 
know what white is, and also what a dove is. 
How, then, did I arrive at the concept white? In 
my thinking process, in conception, I have simply 
given the name white in order to distinguish it 
from other colors which I have found, as red, 
black, blue, etc. 

But these concepts or words are not only ab- 
stract names or mental products. They all stand 
for something, whether absolute or relative, 
whether real or imaginary. The names, or words, 
represent objects in the natural as well as in the 
spiritual world. For concepts are elaborated or 
developed from the retents, and the retents, again, 
are impressions upon the mind from the world 
or worlds in which we live or with which we have 
to deal. Names or words, therefore, are not 
"empty nothings." And even words formed by 
imagination have some elements of reality in 
them, of substance and attributes. 

In order to understand this mode of thinking 
we must compare it and its product with percep- 
tion and the retent. The retent is acquired by 
the spirit indirectly from external or material ob- 
jects by means oi the sense-organs. The concept, 



223 
again, is acquired directly from within, from the 
mental objects or ideas found in the domain of 
memory, and is thus acquired without the direct 
use of the sense-organs. A retent is fundamentally 
a single idea, while a concept is generally a com- 
bination of several ideas, or of but one fixed single 
retent. An impression is not in the first place 
necessarily acted upon by memory, but a retent 
must in order to be brought up before the faculty 
of thinking have been acted upon by that power. 
By perception we find out only that something is ; 
by conception we ascertain what that something 
is, and not only what it is, but also where, why, 
when, and how it is. The finished mental product 
found in memory is the retent, and the finished 
mental product of conception is the concept found 
in memory, but now as an elaborated and fixed 
mental object. 

As stated before, the function of the spirit in 
retention is the same in conception as in percep- 
tion, and stands in exactly the same relation to 
both. The combined retents formed by conception 
into one individual concept, is held or retained by 
memory just as the single retent is held after 
perception. 

In conception the thinking faculty is really in 
the act of forming words. Conception, therefore, 
is essentially a word-making process. 



224 

A concept may be either single or general. Thus, 
for instance, apple is a single concept because it 
denotes only a single kind of object. We know 
what is meant by apple. But the concept fruit we 
call a general concept because it is applicable to 
an indefinite number of objects. Suppose we think 
of an apple and an orange. Of each one of these 
single concepts we may assert: apple is fruit; 
orange is fruit. But we cannot with propriety 
assert : Apple is orange. The concept fruit, there- 
fore, we call a general or common concept, or 
general term. 

All the words in our language, then, are the 
products of the thinking process. By conception 
man has been striving to conceive in his mind, 
and by the mind has he begotten the concepts. 
That which is conceived by means of the two 
active agents, memory and thinking, must, in 
order to be duly appreciated, be begotten as a 
perfect individual. In spoken or written lan- 
guage these normal individuals, the words, stand 
forth as the begotten fruit of the mind. We may 
call the words terms. The word term is derived 
from the Latin word terminus which means a 
boundary, limit, or end. The word term, there- 
fore, is very significant in its application to the 
finished product of conception, for each concept, 
each word, marks itself the boundary of its mean- 



225 
ning, it marks the finishing point and summit 
of the mind's action in conception. Every word, 
then, is a term, and not only substantives and 
adjectives, but also pronouns, verbs, adverbs, 
prepositions, conjunctions and interjections — all 
the words of man's vocabulary. For every word 
has a, meaning, and if a word does not convey an 
idea, a meaning of some kind, we may throw it 
away as good for nothing, or store it up as a relic 
or an obsolete thing. 

We are in a certain sense more fortunate than 
our first parents who, though in Paradise, had to 
give names to everything themselves, that is, 
originate a language. Now and then we also are 
obliged to coin a new word, and thus add to the 
great vocabulary of our language. From the be- 
ginning we have the benefit not only of a spoken 
language, but also of a written language as an 
aid in our efforts. We learn to speak from our 
parents and teachers, and what a treasury of 
wisdom we possess in the words ot our language ! 
Of course, the knowledge stored up in language 
we also must acquire, in the first place by percep- 
tion, but we do not need to bother ourselves the 
least as to the development of our retents. We 
need only to exercise our thinking faculty in the 
domain of memory and keep the concepts there 
clear by constant use. 

15 



226 

3. Judgment. 

There is another mode of thinking. We have 
already seen that we employ judgment in con- 
ception and in the formation of words or terms. 
In the former mode of thinking, however, the 
spirit dealt mainly with the retent, with unde- 
veloped concepts, and developed them into words 
or terms. In this present mode of thinking, the 
spirit takes hold of fully developed concepts, or 
terms, from the first and compares and judges 
them. The product of the former process was the 
concept. In the present one the product is a 
proposition. Thus, 

All men are mortals 
is a proposition. Here there is no thought as to 
the concept of men or mortals, or anything else 
in the words of the proposition. That is already 
fixed and determined. We already know what 
we mean by men and likewise by mortals in the 
proposition. 

Most of us commence to exercise this function 
or mode by the thinking faculty as soon as we 
have learnt to talk or acquired a few words to 
express our thoughts. For the concepts are al- 
ready prepared for us by former generations, and 
our parents give us word after word, and explain 
their meaning. At a more advanced age we have, 



227 
of course, the privilege of finding out for our- 
selves the import of each word, its derivation, 
roots, stem, etc. Thus we start out very early 
in life expressing our thoughts by judgments, 
comparing concepts. This is the general starting 
point of thinking. We learn the names or words 
of things, and begin at once to judge by compar- 
ing them, whereby we form simple judgments or 
propositions. 

4. Reasoning. 

Reasoning is a more complicated mode or pro- 
cess of the thinking faculty. It is an exercise of 
the highest function of the spirit. In the judg- 
ment we compared terms only; in reasoning we 
compare propositions with propositions. Rea- 
soning, therefore, is, more fully stated, an act 
of the mind by which from two given proposi- 
tions called premises the mind proceeds to a third 
proposition called the conclusion. Thus, for in- 
stance, we judge: 

All men are mortals, 

Americans are men, 

Therefore, Americans are mortals. 
This mode of thinking we also call judging by 
syllogisms. 

Reasoning is pursued by different methods, as 
the deductive and the inductive method. The ex- 



228 
ample just mentioned is a fair sample of deduc- 
tion. In induction we infer from a part only to 
a whole, or from the individual to the universal. 
And we conclude that what is true of certain 
individuals is true of the whole class. The as- 
sertion dependent on this method, however, al- 
though extensively used, especially in the physical 
sciences, may after all prove to ]be untrue. But 
it may also prove to be true. It is, however, a 
reasoning by hypotheses, and needs to be verified 
by facts, step by step. The conclusions drawn 
by this method of reasoning are, therefore, at 
first only probable. 

In our general reasoning, however, we use both 
these methods interchangeably. We argue by a 
priori reasoning, that is, we base our arguments 
on truths previously known, and we argue a pos- 
teriori, that is, we base our arguments on conse- 
quences of a general truth to what that general 
truth is. 

By this mode of thinking, namely, reasoning, 
we arrive at order and system in the realm of 
knowledge. The human spirit in its self-conscious 
state is constantly occupied in systemizing, in 
bringing unity from diversity. This work of the 
mind will, lastly, bring us science, which is simply 
classified knowledge. In this sphere of thought, 
in reasoning, we may always expect to find the 



229 
greatest men of intelligence, the really great 
thinkers, the true philosophers. 

There are, then, three distinct modes of think- 
ing, namely, conception, judgment, and reasoning. 
So far the thinking faculty has dealt with real 
or material thought, that is, the retents of which 
the concepts have been formed. Memory has 
brought before the thinking faculty impressions 
of realities just as they are, ideas of natural and 
real things. 

We now enter a new field of thought. In this 
we find the spirit as a creator of new forms of 
concepts. This is, therefore, not a mode of think- 
ing only, but is more than that. It is a distinct 
faculty, a subfaculty of the intellect. We call 
this faculty 

5. Imagination. 

Imagination is that subfaculty of the intellect 
by means of which the spirit from materials al- 
ready furnished in the mind as concepts, con- 
structs other forms, and thus creates new mental 
objects or concepts. 

These new concepts are more or less modified 
original concepts, and may in their new form 
have no distinct reality. They may be either 
better or worse than the original concepts, they 
may be natural or unnatural ; for the spirit has 



230 
the power to increase or decrease, to beautify or 
make homely and even ridiculous the original and 
natural concepts, and to form them into various 
combinations. 

This work of the spirit's construction and re- 
construction of concepts begins first in the mem- 
ory, and therefore deals only with old materials. 
Hence the spirit creates no new material. It is 
only the form of the material that is new. In 
imagination the spirit either adds something to 
the original concept or substracts from it certain 
attributes, or combines parts of different con- 
cepts. All this the spirit may do in the most 
capricious and phantastic way, or in the most 
earnest or sober way, and with an elevated pur- 
pose. 

Imagination is exercised more or less by every 
individual. Whatever the thinking faculty may 
touch upon may cause the power of imagination 
to act, and this it does whenever the mind devi- 
ates from the natural or original concept. But 
imagination deals not only with the mental objects 
of the mind. It deals also with the very life of the 
spirit. Imagination enters the domain of sensi- 
bility and the will and in every line or process 
of thought, and thus enters into the conscience. 
Unless well guarded by the heart it may, there- 
fore, play havoc with these processes. A person 



231 
may imagine almost anything, and imagine until 
the spirit loses itself in — insanity. This power 
of the thinking faculty should, therefore, be care- 
fully guarded by real thinking or reasoning, that 
is, the spirit should not take the wings of imagina- 
tion and soar either too high or fly too low, or 
too far away from its foothold, the natural and 
the real. The spirit in the act of imagination 
should be like Noah's dove: having fulfilled her 
mission in searching for the dry land and finding 
no place to rest on, she came back to the ark. 

Imagination, however, is a necessary compli- 
ment to thought proper, that is, to the natural 
or real. By imagination the inventor, the mathe- 
matician, the artist, the architect, the sculptor, 
the painter, the musician, the poet, the novelist, 
the moralist, the theologian, and the philosopher 
are all greatly aided in their respective fields of 
labor. Without the power of imagination there 
would be very little progress either in the intel- 
lectual, or in the material world. Particularly 
in the field of thought it plays a wonderful role. 
As the association of ideas is the liveliest phe- 
nomenon in memory, so is imagination in the 
thinking faculty. 

Imagination plays a very interesting role not 
only among educated people, but also among the 
uneducated and children, among semi-barbarian 



232 
people and savages. This conclusion we draw 
from their languages, their actions and works. 
Their figures of speech, as similes, metaphors, 
etc., are full of the products of imagination. The 
heathen people in their religious exercises plainly 
show the power of imagination, when they sacri- 
fice their children to idols, pray to them, or fear 
the natural forces as threatening gods. The 
wellknown picture of Atlas is a fair specimen of 
imagination. Atlas was supposed to be a god who 
bore the world upon his shoulders. 

In children imagination is very active. Think 
for a moment of the boy's fancy when riding 
"horse-back" on a broomstick. Or think of the 
little girl playing with a bit of rag as if it were 
a veritable baby. 

But there are also imaginations of another na- 
ture that we would call phantasms. A sick per- 
son in high fever often imagines many curious 
things. He imagines, perhaps, that he sees birds 
flying or fancied beings moving about in the 

room. 

6. Conscience. 

Conscience is a subfaculty of the intellect. It 
is that power of the spirit by which man is cap- 
able of knowing his own moral state and moral 
actions. It is exclusively a moral faculty. It is 
a faculty of the heart. 



233 

The word conscience comes from the Latin 
words con (with) and scire (to know). The 
word, therefore, means literally, knowing with. 

To the individual this faculty is the highest 
tribunal to which he can appeal. On account of 
this faculty man is "a law unto himself," a law 
which even God respects and commands the indi- 
vidual and other human beings to respect. No 
human being can, therefore, act as judge over 
another person's conscience. Only God is the 
judge of man's conscience. 

The activities of this faculty indicate the high- 
est function of the spirit's self -consciousness. It 
is a knowing not only with the individual him- 
self concerning his morals, but also a knowing 
with God, that is, of the individual's attitude and 
responsibility to Him. This knowledge of his 
moral obligations and of his attitude to the al- 
mighty and righteous God cannot but have a 
profound influence upon man's sensibility. But 
the conscience is not preeminently a "moral sensa- 
tion", but a moral intelligence, a moral reason. 
The effect of this moral reason will concentrate 
either into a pleasant feeling of self -approbation 
or into a painful remorse of guilt, as the case 
may be. Moral reason always precedes moral 
feelings or emotions, and is the cause of them. 

In authority the conscience always stands above 



234 
the will, and though the will may suppress for a 
time the workings of the conscience, it can have 
no lasting power over the same; for the con- 
science will at last beat off the will and assert its 
authority as a judge. 

The conscience, as well as the other faculties 
of the mind, is a created power, subject to edu- 
cation and development. Of all the faculties of 
the spirit, conscience is the last one in the order 
of development. In the child this moral faculty 
seems to be dormant during the first and even the 
second year. The child does not even realize its 
own power in this respect perhaps until several 
years have passed away and the child has learnt 
to know something about right and wrong, and 
learnt to act in accordance with this knowledge. 
A child may laugh in innocence after putting out 
the eye of its little brother or sister, and play 
merrily with its toys as if nothing unusual had 
occurred. This it does because it does not realize 
that it has done wrong. But as soon as it is old 
enough to learn a few lessons in ethics, it will 
step by step understand the meaning and import 
of the word ought, and will realize its duties and 
responsibilities. We see thus that the conscience 
is dependent on knowledge for its true develop- 
ment and proper action. Conscience, therefore, 
is not, as some have claimed it to be, an inborn 



235 
"voice of God," which in all instances is perfect 
and infallible. On account of the different stages 
of development, of age and of education, we will 
find to the contrary that the moral faculty may 
vary in different persons. Thus we find "weak" 
consciences, "strong", "pure", "denied", "good" 
and "evil" and the like, according to the state- 
ment of the Holy Scriptures. 

Being by nature a sinner, man cannot always 
depend on his own conscience. But when the in- 
dividual conscience has been fully enlightened 
and corrected by the Word of God, then, and not 
till then, can the individual appeal to his own 
conscience. Even though the public conscience 
should be different from his, he would be per- 
fectly right in being "a law unto himself" and 
in keeping this law. Whenever a man knows 
that he is doing that which is right before God 
and men, he has at least the self -approbation of 
being in peace with his God. 

By public conscience we mean "common sense" 
with regard to the standard of what is right and 
what is wrong; it is a law, written or unwritten, 
by tacit consent. But no education or instruc- 
tion without the right application of the Word 
of God can cultivate the conscience of either an 
individual or a people. An individual conscience 
as well as a pub-lie conscience may, therefore, be 



236 
wrong or right. Blessed is the land or community 
whose conscience is in accordance with the will 
of God, but woe unto a land or community whose 
conscience is wrong. 

Conscience is entirely an "inner" faculty, that 
is, it has to deal only with the spirit's own ego, 
its moral condition. It is only a judge of morals, 
of duty and obligations and upon its verdicts the 
spirit will experience either the highest peace 
possible or a gnaving remorse of guilt. 

We have now considered the general faculty of 
the understanding as well as its special faculties 
of perception and thinking. We have studied 
recollection, the different modes of thinking, and 
the subfaculties of imagination and conscience. 
By perception the spirit acquires material for 
thought. By the thinking faculty the spirit pene- 
trates not only the past and the present, but also 
to some extent the future, touching now and then 
upon the borderland of eternity. It surveys by 
means of the thinking faculty a very great field, 
and explains as far as it is possible both the 
material and the spiritual world. The entire uni- 
verse is its field. It takes cognizance of being, 
space and duration, and inquires into the very 
essence or substance of things, their attributes, 
the causes of things, effect, means and ends, life 
and death, temporal and eternal. 



237 
As an industrious bee flies over a fresh clover- 
field, from one blossom to another, storing up a 
rich and sweet supply for itself and others, so 
the spirit soars over the universe acquiring knowl- 
edge and storing up wisdom for present and fu- 
ture generations. By increasing our knowledge 
we constantly extend our field of spiritual ob- 
servation and operation. 

But our understanding, though great, is limited. 
We can go just so far and no farther. There 
are horizons beyond which no human thought can 
penetrate. Then revelation from the Almighty 
Spirit is welcome and he is wise indeed who learns 
of Him who is the Father of all spirits and knows 
all things absolutely. 

Realizing the enormous field of material for 
knowledge and the brevity of our earthly life, one 
could almost wish for a lifetime here below of at 
least a thousand years. But the world to come 
will, no doubt, satisfy our thirst for knowledge 
and wisdom of even a higher order. 



THE WILL. 



Diagram of the Will. 

Attention. 
Choice. 
Decision. 



J^lll Execution. 




Spirit^ 



A. Heart 

B. Soul 



QUESTIONS. 

1 What is the will? 

2 What privileges are conferred upon man by this 
faculty ? 

3 Does it matter whether man's will is exercised by 
the soul or by the heart? 

4 What faculty should be the controlling power in 
man's self-conscious state? 

5 Do the other faculties have any influence upon the 
will? 

6 What faculty shows the real energy or strength of 
the spirit? 

7 What is absolutely necessary in regard to the will 
in order to hold man responsible for his acts and 
conditions ? 

8 What can you state as to what ought to constitute 
the limit of man's freedom? 

9 Who, in the first instance, has authority to establish 
the limit of man's freedom ? 

10 Does this limitation of man's freedom benefit him 
or harm him? 

11 Does man, then, have a right to do as he pleases 
under all circumstances? 

16 



242 

12 Can man transgress the limit of freedom which God 
has established? 

13 What is freedom in the best sense of the word? 

14 Is anything good ever secured by transgression ? 

15 What is a transgressor and what does he lose by 
transgression ? 

16 What, then, is man's duty? 

17 Is there any freedom of will at all without duty? 

18 When is man free to act as he pleases ? 

19 Have all individuals equal liberty in everything ? 

20 Explain the freedom granted, for instance, to gover- 
nors, parents, teachers, citizens, children, pupils, etc. 

21 What would be the consequences among sinful men 
were there no restrictions as to the freedom of will ? 

22 Is even love of one another limited? 

23 How can you say that freedom is an "awful thing ?" 

24 Has any human being a right to take away from 
others the freedom which God has granted ? 

25 Have we, then, the right to protect this freedom, 
and to what extent? 

26 What is the difference between man's will now and 
before the fall? 

27 What is attention? 

28 Where does attention originate? 

29 Explain the value of attention. 

30 How is attention expressed? 

31 On what is self-conscious choice dependent? 

32 What should be the standard in choice with respect 
to morals? 

33 What does choice imply? 

34 What is meant by maxims? 

35 Is man responsible for his choice? 



243 

36 What are the great maxims that people follow in 
choice ? 

37 How are maxims acquired and formed by each in- 
dividual ? 

18 What faculty should be the guide and leading power 
in choice? 

39 Should we choose while under the influence of pas- 
sions ? 

40 What position does the will-power take in choice with 
reference to the understanding? 

41 Is choice an important act? 

42 Is choice an act of the will alone? 

43 What is decision? 

44 Can a decision be changed or suspended ? 

45 What can you state as to the importance and value 
of a decision with reference to the mind itself? 

46 Do others take into consideration what we decide in 
our own mind? 

47 When will our fellow men take cognizance of our 
decisions and hold us responsible for them? 

48 Why should we always decide correctly? 

49 What is execution? 

50 State the importance of an execution of the will. 

51 Comparing choice, decision and execution, to what 
would you liken them? 

52 What bearing may the will have upon the future 
state of man? 




THE WILL. 

The will is that general faculty of the spirit by 
virtue of which it is capable of attention, choice, 
decision and execution. 

By this faculty man stands forth, in the first 
place, as a self -controlling and self-determining 
personality, and in the second place, as one who 
is capable of having dominion over the earth. On 
account of this great power man is a responsible 
being. 

The nature of the act of the will depends upon 
whether the will is exercised by the soul or by the 
heart of the spirit. Thus attention of the soul 
alone may indeed be shown by fixed and staring 
eyes, but the heart need not be in it. There is, 
therefore, in reality inattention. A choice by the 
soul alone is more or less a careless choice, and 
the decision and execution will be of the same 
nature. But attention of the heart stirs up the 
soul to true attention, and is always intense, sin- 
cere and earnest. It may be shown even in the 
luster of the eye, and this without staring. Choice 
of this kind will be careful, the decision resolute 



245 
and the execution compelled by the entire spirit- 
ual power. In everything of a moral nature the 
heart should partake. If not, man is negligent 
of his highest duties. 

The self-conscious will should control the un- 
derstanding and the sensibility, but often the 
contrary may take place, so that the sensibility 
alone or the understanding controls the will. In 
the exercises of the spirit the faculties influence 
each other more or less, though one or the other 
may at the time be predominant. No faculty acts 
independently of the other. 

The faculty of will shows, however, the real 
energy of the spirit. When the intellect gets tired 
of its thought-work the will may compel it to go 
on; and when the body relaxes, the will compels 
the nerves to stimulate the muscles and to ener- 
gize the body. But if the will relaxes also the 
physical organism will relax. 

Resoluteness of will is, no doubt, the mark of 
a great spirit. It certainly indicates a firm spirit. 
This firmness of spirit needs not be stubbornness, 
however, which yields not even to reason. 

In all acts of the will man must be free from 
interference. Otherwise man cannot be held re- 
sponsible for either his volitions, thoughts, de- 
sires, words, or deeds. 

Much has been said during past ages concerning 



246 
the freedom of man's will, both from a philosophi- 
cal and from a theological point of view. We will 
not enter into a discussion / here as to what has 
been said in this matter, but simply state: 1) that 
in so far as man is essentially a moral being: his 
freedom of will must consist not only in the power 
to do as he pleases, but also in what he ought to 
do; 2) that in so far as man is a relative being 
his freedom of will is necessarily limited. The 
freedom of man's will, therefore, is limited by 
just that word ought, i. e., duty. 

This limit is established by the Creator Him- 
sei± in man's conscience and further explained 
by the Word of God, or the law, which says, "thou 
shalt" and "thou shalt not." This restriction is, 
indeed, a good and wise Father's command to His 
child and is worth while remembering at all times, 
because it is intended for man's temporal and 
eternal welfare. Man, therefore, has no right to 
do as he pleases under all circumstances, although 
he has the power to do so. But freedom without 
the golden boundary of duty as established by the 
Creator is not freedom, but slavery, spiritual slav- 
ery. And the sooner the false idea of freedom, 
namely, to do as one pleases without restriction, 
is eradicated from the heart of both old and 
young, the better it will be for mankind. 

Let us illustrate the freedom of will. 



247 




Suppose that within the circumference of the 
circle man is free to act in accordance with God's 
will. In order to be truly happy man certainly 
needs not more freedom than his Creator has 
given him. But suppose, further, that man should 
make use of his power and do as he pleases, for- 
getting or neglecting his duties, and go his way, 
say, from a point indicated by the letter A within 
the circle to a point B beyond the limit of his allot- 
ted freedom. What then? Man would thereby 
do wrong, sin directly against his Maker. This 
is just what our first parents did when they ate 
of the forbidden fruit. They went beyond the 
limits of their freedom, they did as they pleased, 
for it is written, "the Lord God commanded the 
man saying, Of every tree of the garden thou may- 



248 
est freely eat, but of the tree of the knowledge of 
good and evil thou shalt not eat of it" (Gen. 2: 
16 — 17) . The consequences of their act in trans- 
gressing the freedom that God established we 
have all learnt by bitter experience. They did eat, 
against God's will, of the tree of the knowledge 
of good and evil, although they knew what to 
do and what not to do. Man was, therefore, with- 
out excuse for his wrongdoing. Freedom, then, 
is a right granted, and consists in the use of man's 
power in accordance with God's will. 

Indeed, man can do as he pleases as far as his 
power will allow him, but he will be held respon- 
sible for his acts. But what good is really derived 
from transgression ? Nothing at all. Nay, more- 
over, it is a great loss of freedom, for as soon 
as man transgresses the limits of his freedom 
he becomes a slave, a "bondservant of sin". By 
sin man loses his spiritual freedom, just as he 
loses his physical freedom by transgressing the 
laws of society in committing crimes that are 
punishable by imprisonment. To do as one pleas- 
es, if he do wrong is, therefore, not freedom but 
slavery. 

It is man's duty to do what is right and to 
shun what is wrong. And there is absolutely no 
freedom of will without duty. Man has duties 
to himself, to his fellow men, and to God, and 



249 
these duties he should not ignore. In man's 
choice, decision and execution, in everything he 
does within the spirit or through his body, duty 
is the light that should guide him. Duty, how- 
ever, does not stand above the power of the will, 
but it is first and foremost in the curriculum of 
the exercises of that power. Take away the duty 
and man would be as the wildest brute. But with- 
in the boundary of duty man is free to act as 
he pleases, for then he acts in accordance with 
God's will. 

Even within the general freedom which God has 
granted man there are restrictions — circles with- 
in the great circle — which the individual must 
learn to know and to respect. For next to God 
whom every human individual ought to respect 
as the absolute authority, there are the state, the 
church, the school, and the home, each of which 
is a divine institution that every individual should 
respect as an authority, especially when these 
are in harmony with the will of God. Thus in 
the home the individual has duties as child and 
parent; in school, as pupil and teacher; in the 
church, as member of Christ; in the state, as 
citizen and governor. And each individual has 
duties to other individuals. Think, for a moment, 
of a freedom which would permit every one to 
do as he pleases, without restriction ! What would 



250 
it mean to the home, to the school, and to all other 
human organizations? It would mean, among 
sinful beings, complete anarchy. Common sense 
teaches us that a child shall not have the same 
rights and freedom as parents or teachers. Any 
transgression of the limit of freedom is punished 
in one way or other. Even my individual person- 
al freedom is limited. I have no right to do as 
I please with myself. I have no right to think 
evil thoughts, no right to entertain evil desires, 
no right to do as I please with my body. Civil 
government will not hold me responsible for any 
of these acts but before my Maker I am respon- 
sible, and my conscience tells me so. Even in 
the very highest sphere of activity, namely, love, 
man's freedom is limited by duty. It is true, 
indeed, that we should love all men, but even 
common sense will tell us that one's own wife 
or husband should be loved more than any other 
woman or man. It certainly would not be well 
to love all alike. 

Man's freedom, therefore, is a most serious 
gift, an endowment that imposes the greatest re- 
sponsibility, since man can or may misuse it. But 
it is also a most blessed thing since man may 
become a most happy being by making a correct 
use of his freedom. The freedom which God 
has granted each individual no one has a right 



251 
to take away from him. It is a most sacred and 
inalienable right, for which an individual, as well 
as a people, will gladly sacrifice life. 

The condition of man's will after the fall is 
explained by theology. The freedom of man's 
will is, no doubt, restrained and perverted by 
evil influences, as is corroborated by the history 
of man. Concerning the freedom of man Christ 
says: "If ye abide in my word, then are ye 
truly my disciples; and ye shall know the truth, 
and the truth shall make you free. They answered 
unto him, We be Abraham's seed and have never 
yet been in bondage to any man : how sayest thou, 
Ye shall be free? Jesus answered them, Verily, 
verily, I say unto you, every one that committed 

sin is the bondservant of sin If, therefore, 

the Son shall make you free, ye shall be free 
indeed." (John 8: 31—36.) 

1. Attention. 

Attention is that power of the spirit exercised 
through the faculty of the will by which the spirit 
directs its energy upon any special object, wheth- 
er it be an external object or an internal object 
as a thought, a sensation or feeling or an act of 
its own will-power. 

It is in the spirit's own power to exercise this 



252 
function or not. Attention is undoubtedly one 
of the first principles in any self-conscious under- 
taking of any importance. Real attention is al- 
ways an expression of the heart and is, therefore, 
of great value. Draw the attention, and the 
heart will be with you. Where there is little or 
no attention we may be sure that there is a lack 
of interest and in this state nothing of real value 
will ever be accomplished. Attention is paid in 
the first instance by means of the intellect and 
next by an attitude of inclination of the body, 
especially by the ear or the eye. 

2. Choice. 

Self-conscious choice cannot take place without 
preliminary deliberation. Man must first learn 
to know what he is going to do, and especially 
in ethical matters what he ought to do. This 
deliberation is very essential to man as a respon- 
sible being. 

Choice implies alternatives, and there must be 
a reason why a person prefers one object to an- 
other. This reason will be found in his motives 
or grounds of action. Those motives which im- 
ply lower or higher principles with reference to 
a supreme and ultimate end we call maxims. 
Because he is a free personality man can choose 



253 

as he pleases, but over the result of his choice he 
has no power. On account of choice the sensi- 
bility will reward man or punish him, he will 
feel complacency or remorse, as the case may be. 

In the act of choice the human spirit generally 
follows certain established principles which he 
has formed and accepted as being of the greatest 
importance to him and to his life. These accepted 
principles may be different in kind, and vary in 
different individuals. As examples of such great 
principles we would mention happiness in this 
world or happiness in the world to come. Most 
people have established principles, gained by habit 
or education, which concern only temporal hap- 
piness. But eternity should also be taken into 
consideration. 

In the act of choice the spirit should always 
have an end in view, and at this point the under- 
standing should be the guiding and leading power. 
Very often, however, the will may act, induced 
only by the sensibility, by desires, or even by pas- 
sions, which constitute a very dangerous element 
in an act of choice. Therefore the spirit should 
always refer to the sound and calm faculty of 
the understanding. The sensation of hunger, for 
instance, may drive one to steal the necessaries of 
life, if nothing worse, to satisfy this craving. 
And in a moment of anger, what wrongs may be 



254 
committed ! All such acts might, in a sober state 
of mind, have been avoided with great and lasting 
good effects, had the spirit stopped for a minute 
and reasoned out the consequences of wrongdoing. 
How many a soul would have been saved from the 
prison and the gallows, from indescribable re- 
morse, had he only listened to the dictates of an 
enlightened intellect! 

In an act of choice the faculty of the under- 
standing presents the object, while the spirit 
through the faculty of the will stands, as a guide. 
The choice now depends on the spirit's maxims. 
This is a most important moment of life, es- 
pecially in a choice of moral nature, a moment 
on which success or failure for time and even 
eternity may depend. For even now man stands 
in the act of choice, as the woman stood in 
Paradise looking at the fruit of "the tree of 
the knowledge of good and evil," 1 asking in his 
heart: Shall I or shall I not? In an act of 
choice, then, the will and the understanding 
work together. 

3. Decision. 

Decision is purely an act of the will, and is 
the approximate result of choice. The choice 
now stands, good or bad. The decision made 



1) Genesis 3: 6. 



255 
may stand or be changed, be approved or dis- 
approved by the spirit, before the last act of 
the will, the execution. The decision may be 
suspended for any length of time, and may not 
be carried out at all. After the decision we 
again notice how the faculties of the understand- 
ing and the will work together. Many changes 
may therefore occur before the execution of a 
decision takes place. 

A decision, though not executed in words or 
deeds, is very important, inasmuch as it will 
have an effect upon the mind itself. Before men 
a decision is never taken into consideration until 
executed in words or in deeds, but before the 
Supreme Judge who takes cognizance even of 
thoughts and the secret actions of the heart, a 
decision is momentous, is an act of the spirit. And 
God as well as His word is "a discerner of the 
thoughts and intents of the heart." 1 We should, 
therefore, always strive to decide correctly in all 
things, not only because God sees us but also 
because of the effect of the decision upon the 
spirit itself, particularly in the conscience, and 
this, again, upon the sensibility. 



1) Hebrew 4: 12. 



256 

4. Execution. 

Execution is the last act of the will. It is an 
act of the spirit by the faculty of the will, by 
which it carries out a decision. By this act man 
becomes responsible not only to God but also to 
human tribunals. 

Comparing these three acts of the spirit in the 
faculty of the will, namely, choice, decision, and 
execution, we would say, that in choice the spirit 
plants a seed in the depths of its consciousness; 
in decision it cultivates the same; in execution it 
harvests the ripened fruit, which now becomes 
ready either for the granary or for — the furnace. 

Upon man's will depends not only his temporal 
life but also his eternal salvation or damnation. 

We have now finished our study with regard 
to the faculties of the spirit of man. This study 
has certainly made us better acquainted with our 
own ego. What a wonderful being is our spirit! 
Its essence is as transparent as the purest air, 
and yet is so powerful in sensibility, so brilliant 
in understanding, so mighty in will ! Its form is 
so indefinite as to be incomprehensible, and yet 
is localized in a material body! Indeed, we must 
with admiration and awe exclaim : "We are won- 
derfully and fearfully made.'' 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF 
THE SPIRIT, 

ITS TEMPERAMENTS OR CHARACTERISTICS. 



17 



M&MsM^MaM^^MsMsii 



QUESTIONS. 

1 Does the spirit of man grow or develop? 

2 Does the spirit's development always keep pace with 
the body's development? 

3 Do you believe that there will be an eternal progress 
and growth of the spirit? 

4 What great power of the spirit is the first to act in 
man's development? 

5 What faculty is dominant in the spirit's first stages 
of development? 

6 What faculty controls the will in the first stages 
of development? 

7 What kind of life is shown in the first year? 

8 To what is the soul's first attention directed? 

9 About what time does a child begin to realize its 
personal identity as a self-determining and self- 
controlling personality ? 

10 What great power of the spirit is always acting in 
the human body, from its beginning to its end ? 

11 When does the heart of the spirit begin its mission? 

12 Hjow can we know that the heart has begun its work ? 

13 Are the feelings of the soul necessarily the feelings 
of the heart? 



260 

14 Can the feelings or acts of the other faculties be 
expressed by the heart without the soul's participa- 
tion in it ? Why ? 

15 Can one faculty be developed more than another? 

16 What would be the effect of such a development? 

17 What is meant by a normal development of the facul- 
ties? 

18 Is the development of the soul necessarily a develop- 
ment of the heart of the spirit ? 

19 What effect would a development of the soul alone 
have upon the faculties? 

20 What would a person of such an education amount 
to at the very best ? 

21 What effect would a development of the heart have 
upon the faculties and thereby upon the entire 
spirit ? 

22 In what, then, does a true development of the spirit 
consist ? 

23 Is a truly educated person a blessing to the world? 

24 Can man be properly educated without the Word of 
God? Why? 

25 Can we ever do too much for man in the line of true 
education ? 

26 What does negligence in education bring to an indi- 
vidual or a people? 

27 What is formed in man's personality by education 
and development of the spirit? 

28 What are the two great factors in character build- 
ing? 

29 Who is the first character moulder in a new individ- 
ual? 



261 

30 Which are the first and most influential environ- 
ments of a child besides the mother? 

31 Can the school entirely change the fundamental 
character previously formed? 

32 What, then, is the world mostly in need of? 

33 Have we any reason for believing in a prenatal cul- 
ture? 

34 What do we mean by temperaments ? 

35 Should we recognize a physical or spiritual basis for 
the temperaments? 

36 Which are the three general temperaments of the 
spirit ? 

37 Upon what basis do we recognize these tempera- 
ments ? 

38 How is the emotive temperament formed? 

39 What kind of men may an overdevelopment of the 
sensibility form? 

40 What is the optimistic temperament? 

41 What reason may we give for such a temperament? 

42 What is the pessimistic temperament? 

43 What reason may be given for this temperament ? 

44 How is the contemplative temperament formed? 

45 What kind of men are produced by a particular de- 
velopment of the intellect? 

46 What is the idealistic temperament? 

47 What is the materialistic temperament? 

48 What is the volitive temperament? 

49 What kind of men will the development of this 
faculty produce? 

50 Is it necessary that an individual should have only 
one conspicuous temperament? Why? 



262 

51 When is the best time for modifying and forming 
character ? 

52 What is the power that performs physical as well as 
mental labor? 

53 What is meant by physical labor? 

54 What is meant by mental labor? 

55 Does the spirit get tired? Why? 

56 What must the spirit do in order to get strength? 

57 Whence the strength for the spirit? 

58 In what does the spirit's rest consist? 

59 Does the spirit work all the time? 

60 What is the easiest work of the mind ? 

61 Which faculty shows most conspicuously the real 
strength of the spirit? 

62 Who are the strongest and greatest men of the 
world ? 

63 What words in Hebrew, Greek and Latin correspond 
respectively to the English words image and like- 
ness? 

64 What does an image, or likeness, presuppose? 

65 Where in man should we seek for the image of God? 

66 In what relation does the substance or essence of the 
image and the likeness stand to each other? 

67 Mention some images in which both the substance 
and the likeness are of a personal nature. 

68 Mention some images in which the substance is ma- 
terial and the likeness is of a personal nature. 

69 Mention some purely spiritual images. 

70 Mention some purely material images. 

71 How do we comprehend the image of God in man? 

72 Have the heathen any idea of the human spirit as 
being of divine nature? 



263 

73 What is necessary in order to draw a true conclu- 
sion as to what constitutes the image of God in man ? 

74 Is the Word of God important in the study of man 
as being the image of God? 

75 Can we expect to find anything of God in man that 
does not exist in God? 

76 May we, however, expect to find anything in man 
that does not exist in God? 

77 Is it, then, correct to say: cr What is found in man 
must also be found in God ?" Why ? 

78 What essential difference must we find between those 
things found in man's spirit and those found in 
God? 

79 Is the image of God now what it originally was, that 
is, before the fall ? 

80 Can the original image be restored ? 

81 Was the image of God as to its essence eradicated by 
the fall? 

82 Compare the attributes of God with the attributes 
of man's spirit. 

83 What may we positively state both as to the good and 
the bad found in man with reference to its origin? 

84 What did man lose by the fall? 

85 In which individuals may we find the image of God 
restored and sanctified? 

86 In what does the image of God consist ? 

87 To what two worlds does man belong? 

88 Is man really of noble birth? 

89 What is the great hope of man as to his future ? 



*®r 



THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPIRIT. 

The human spirit with its great powers of soul 
and heart and its wonderful faculties of sensibil- 
ity, understanding and will has not sprung into 
being at once fully developed, but has gradually 
grown up from the spiritual essence through the 
various stages of unconsciousness, semi-con- 
sciousness, and self -consciousness. 

The body of man grows; so does the spirit. 
Concerning John the Baptist it is written: "The 
child grew, and waxed strong in the spirit" (Luke 
1 : 80) . When the culmination of the spiritual 
growth is reached, we have no means of knowing. 
The spiritual growth, however, does not always 
keep step with the bodily growth. This we notice 
both in children and in old people. Sometimes we 
find the most brilliant intellects in very frail bod- 
ies. We may suppose that this world is only a 
small beginning in the development of the won- 
derful resources of the human spirit. There must 
be an eternal progress of development and enjoy- 
ment for a spirit made in the image of God. Many 
undoubtedly brilliant souls who are, for unknown 
reasons, taken away from the arena of temporal 



265 
life even in the very first hour of the dawn of 
their day will asuredly have an opportunity to 
grow and develop their endowments in a better 
world. 

In the development of the spirit the soul is the 
first power to develop and act, and in due time 
the heart follows. All the first phenomena of 
physical life, as the motion of the body, its, crav- 
ing for nourishment, etc., are expressions of the 
souPs activity. The faculty of perception, par- 
ticularly through the sense of touch, must by 
necessity be the first acting power. This power 
influences the sensibility, and this, again, the will. 
All this may take place in the spirit's unconscious 
state. The intelligence of the soul is already 
shown in the innocent eyes that for the first time 
behold a new world. During the first years of 
a human being the soul will show only the lowest 
forms of activity in the sensibility, the under- 
standing and the will. At this time we find the 
phenomena of vital sensations and organ-sensa- 
tions, perception, and faint signs of memory, but 
no real thinking, no judgment or reasoning. The 
will is, therefore, in this period of life, controlled 
by mere sensibility, and the soul feels and acts 
according to the impulses of those feelings. There 
is, therefore, no reasonable choice in early child- 
hood. The first years of a human being are entire- 



266 
ly a soul-life in the state of unconsciousness and 
semi-consciousness. In these states, so far, there 
have been no indications of a conscience, which 
demonstrates that the heart is yet dormant. In 
the beginning of a human life the soul attends 
mainly to the development and well-being of the 
body. But as the years pass by the child grows 
stronger physically and mentally, and gradually 
enters into the state of self -consciousness. At the 
age of three or four years, perhaps, it will be 
able to know itself as a personal identity and also 
to show "a mind of its own" in self-determination 
and self-control. Now the soul begins to think 
and reason and remember, and the intellect eas- 
ily recollects the spirtual impressions in the con- 
sciousness. The soul has begun to live a spiritual 
life. 

The soul is always active from the beginning 
to the end of its life in the body whether it be 
in the unconscious state, the semi-conscious, or 
self-conscious state. 

As soon as the soul has entered into the state 
of self -consciousness, the heart begins its mission. 
It is in harmony with divine order and law that 
inferior things should be obedient to the superior. 
So here. The evolution of the powers of the soul 
precedes that of the powers of the heart. 

The activity of the heart lends peculiar power 



267 
to each of the faculties of the soul. The sensibil- 
ity grows richer, the intellect more brilliant, the 
perception more lively and acute; the will more 
attentive, more reasonable in choice and determi- 
nation — all the powers of the spirit have grown 
in intensity. The sun of spiritual splendor has 
arisen upon the human horizon. The heart has 
taken hold of the soul, and the spirit is one in 
essence and in action. The sensibility of the heart 
enters into and unites with the sensibility of 
the soul. The understanding of the heart unites 
with the understanding of the soul; and the will 
of the heart unites with the will of the soul. All 
this intensity of the spirit must also show itself 
in the expressions of the countenance of man. The 
feelings of the soul are not necessarily the feel- 
ings of the heart, the understanding of the soul 
is not necessarily the understanding of the heart, 
and the will of the soul is not necessarily the will 
of the heart. But if it is a feeling, an understand- 
ing, or a will of the heart, the soul also expresses 
it, if it shall be expressed at all, and this must 
be done through the body in its attitude, words 
or deeds. 

The normal development of the spirit is of 
greatest importance not only to the individual but 
also to others, for man is a social being. Either 
of the faculties of the spirit may be developed 



268 
more than the rest and even at the expense of 
them. Thus, the sensibility being overdeveloped 
the person becomes sentimental; the understand- 
ing, especially the thinking faculty, being over- 
developed, the person becomes intelligent ; and the 
will being overdeveloped, the person becomes de- 
termined. But a normal development of the spirit 
would be a true development of all the faculties 
of the spirit. 

A development of the understanding of the soul 
alone would not necessarily mean a development 
of the understanding of the heart. Hence the 
importance of developing not only the facutlies 
of the soul but also the faculties of the heart. 

Let us first consider the development of the soul 
and its effects. A person in whom the faculty 
of the sensibility has been predominant in the de- 
velopment of the soul, desires the pleasures of 
the world ; the faculty of the understanding being 
predominant, the person prefers to perceive and 
to think and philosophize over the created world ; 
the faculty of the will being predominant, the 
person wants to be a leader and organizer, a 
commander of men. Such a person will at the 
very best naturally become a man of the world. 

Now let us consider the development of the 
heart also and its possible effects. The sensibil- 
ity of the heart having become predominant, the 



269 
person desires above all else spiritual pleasures, 
to commune with God and to long for the world 
of eternal bliss; the understanding of the heart 
being predominant, the person prefers to think 
of the Creator, God Himself, and upon things 
more or less related to Him, as eternity and the 
like; the will of the heart being predominant 
in the development of the spirit, the person wants, 
in the first place, to govern himself and others in 
accordance with the will of God, to give heed to 
the voice of the conscience and to act in accord- 
ance with it. Such a person will be a religious 
person, and naturally a worshipper. 

A true development of the spirit, therefore, im- 
plies not only the development of one faculty but 
of all the faculties, and not only of the soul, but 
also, and above all, of the heart. Unless all these 
faculties of both the soul and the heart are fully 
and equally developed, man is not normally de- 
veloped. The whole spirit must be developed. 

Think of a man thus normally developed. What 
a light to the world he must be! What a power 
and what a blessing not only for the present but 
also for future generations! For no one having 
received such a thorough education could be but 
a blessing to the world. Such a person could not 
help but fear and love God and his fellow men. 

In the material necessary for instruction in 



270 
the normal development of the spirit, our age is 
rich. As the moral faculty belongs to the heart, 
and as the heart is of a religious nature, man 
can never be properly educated without religious 
instruction. The heart needs to be made fertile 
by the Word of God. A people without this means 
of instruction can never educate the whole man; 
it can educate the soul, but not the heart. Relig- 
ious instruction is absolutely necessary in a true 
education. 

When we realize the fact that upon the educa- 
tion of the spirit depends the life of humanity, we 
certainly cannot do too much for our spiritual 
growth and happiness. Whosoever is negligent 
in education, be it an individual or a nation, is 
surely doomed to rejection from the higher levels 
of society. For "the survival of the fittest" is 
not vain imagination, it is a spiritual as well as a 
natural law. 



THE TEMPERAMENTS. 

In the development of the spirit's own nature 
certain characteristics are formed in its personal- 
ity. In the formation of these characteristics 
several factors have been at work. As such fac- 
tors in the upbuilding of character, we must men- 



271 
tion in the first place the spirit itself, as a cause, 
with its different faculties and, then, in the second 
place, the influence from environment. 

The human spirit is itself the real character- 
builder or maker. But we must not forget the 
influence of environment. Thus, for instance, the 
spirit of a new human individual is at first under 
the constant influence of its mother, who by her 
spirit and body nourishes and sustains the spirit 
and the body of the new individual. From the 
very first stage of development, then, the individ- 
ual spirit is under the influence of a personal and 
material world. As to environment, the mother 
is the first factor in moulding the new individual's 
character. Her whole life puts an indelible stamp 
upon her as yet unborn babe ; her spirit especially 
will engrave upon the child's spiritual essence 
peculiar and distinctive marks, as the future will 
surely reveal. Education in the home and in the 
school will, of course, add the finishing touch, but 
the fundamental marks and outlines already 
formed will last for ever. Hence the importance 
and value of good mothers. Let us have good 
parents, but especially good mothers, and the 
whole world will grow better. The Son of God, 
the Saviour of the world, was born of a noble, 
godfearing and virtuous mother. No other than 
such a woman could have brought forth the Son 



272 
of God. We believe in and must recognize pre- 
natal culture and its importance. 

As there are thus formed some fundamental 
characteristics which cannot be changed and oth- 
ers which can be changed or modified by educa- 
tion and culture, we must draw a line of distinc- 
tion between these two classes of characteristics. 
These great or fundamental characteristics we 
call temperaments. Temperaments according to 
the old physiological notion we must, however, 
discard as obsolete and too materialistic, discard- 
ing the terms sanguinic, choleric or bilious, phleg- 
matic, melancholic, and the like. We certainly 
recognize the influence of the body upon the mind, 
but it can never constitute temperaments of the 
spirit. By temperaments, then, we mean innate 
and constitutional characteristics of the spirit, 
formed by and manifested in the faculties, by 
means of which the character of the spirit's indi- 
viduality or personality is known. 

As there are only three general faculties by 
which the spirit manifests itself, there can be 
only three general temperaments. These temper- 
aments we will call the emotive temperament, the 
contemplative temperament and the volitive tem- 
perament. These accord with the faculties of tEe 
spirit, namely, sensibility, understanding and 
will. 



273 
THE EMOTIVE TEMPERAMENT. 

This temperament is formed by the spirit by 
means of the faculty of sensibility. An overde- 
velopment of the spirit in this faculty will natur- 
ally produce a sentimental person. We find two 
distinct species of this temperament, which we 
would call optimistic and pessimistic tempera- 
ments. As these are radically opposite we will 
describe each one separately. 

a) The Optimistic Temperament. 

This indicates a spirit inclined to look on the 
bright side of things, a spirit with a hopeful view 
of life. This is certainly a very happy tempera- 
ment, a special blessing to the individual. Per- 
sons of this temperament enjoy life and work, 
enjoy society and shun seclusion. 

The sensorium of pleasure has been the sphere 
of the spirit's activity in producing such a happy 
temperament. And to these happy feelings many 
things have contributed, such as, a healthy con- 
stitution of both mind and body, a lively imagi- 
nation and a ready memory and a good conscience. 

In this temperament we find the real enthusi- 
asts, men full of life and energy. 

18 



274 

b) The Pessimistic Temperament. 

This temperament indicates a spirit with a 
gloomy view of life. A reason for this state of 
mind may be found in an overdevelopment of 
the spirit's activity in sensibility particularly in 
the sensorium of pain. To this state or disposi- 
tion of mind several things and circumstances 
may have contributed, such as, a weak or sickly 
body, a poor memory and consequently a poor 
intellect, a bad conscience with its incessant pangs 
of remorse. A person of this temperament needs 
sympathy. 

THE CONTEMPLATIVE TEMPERAMENT. 

This is a temperament formed by the spirit 
by means of the understanding, and is a calcula- 
ting and investigating temperament. It is the tem- 
perament of thinkers. As the spirit may develop 
more in intellect than in the faculty of percep- 
tion, or vice versa, we will have two species of 
this temperament. These species we will call re- 
spectively idealistic and materialistic tempera- 
ments. 

a) The Idealistic Temperament. 

This is a temperament developed by the spirit's 
activity in the intellect or the thinking faculty. 
Now, in this faculty the spirit can lay more stress 



275 
on either reasoning, imagination or the con- 
science, and different phases of this temperament 
are the effect. Here, then, we should expect to 
find such characters as would give the world really 
wise men and thinkers, as philosophers, theolo- 
gians, moralists, humorists, scientists and inven- 
tors. 

b) The Materialistic Temperament. 

This is a temperament of the spirit developed 
more in the faculty of perception than in the in- 
tellect. In the formation of this temperament the 
spirit strives to satisfy the senses. It is bent out- 
ward to the external world which it admires and 
enjoys. Thus we may get men devoted to physi- 
cal sciences, artists, adventurers, and a long list 
of sensuous personalities seeking not those things 
which are from above but things which are of 
the earth. 

THE VOLITIVE TEMPERAMENT. 

This is a temperament formed by the spirit's 
activity in the faculty of the will. It is a tem- 
perament caused by determination and action. 
The development of the spirit in this direction 
gives us men of action, leaders and organizers of 
men in both state and church. 

We find, then, three general temperaments 
formed in the spirit's own constitution. These 



276 
cannot be changed as to tendency when once 
formed, for the formation of these temperaments 
begins in conception and during the first year of 
existence they are under the constant care of 
the mother. When the individual has become 
fully self-conscious and is able to control himself, 
these temperaments may be somewhat modified 
by self -culture and by education in the home and 
in the school. There will, then, arise a great many 
varieties of characteristics in a human being, but 
the temperaments will always remain fundamen- 
tals and constitute the great outlines of personal- 
ity. An individual does not necessarily have only 
one of these constitutional characteristics con- 
spicuous. A person may have, for instance, both 
an optimistic and a volitive temperament devel- 
oped and even all temperaments well and equally 
balanced. But those persons are very few. As a 
rule one temperament is very prominent in each 
individual. 

These temperaments can be modified and edu- 
cated by environment. Thus, a person of a pes- 
simistic temperament can counteract his tempera- 
ment by a jovial and optimistic environment. And 
an optimist, or enthusiast, can be restrained by 
a soberminded environment. But such a modifi- 
cation of temperaments should be made in early 
childhood. 



STRENGTH OF THE SPIRIT 



THE STRENGTH OF THE SPIRIT. 

Human life is a constant variation of activity 
and rest. The body of man being material and 
therefore subject to the natural forces and de- 
pendent on matter, cannot continually be in active 
service. After certain hours of labor most of the 
muscles relax and the bones in consequence be- 
come more or less motionless. The spirit, then, 
has nothing else to do but to withdraw, and let 
the body rest and recuperate. This rest of the 
body, however, is not total inaction. During rest 
or sleep the lungs and the heart are steadily per- 
forming their respective functions. What, then, 
is the spirit doing while the body rests? It may 
do several things. It is the cause of the body's 
life in the circulation of the blood and in the 
lungs' activity in respiration, etc. 

The spirit has much to do with the body. The 
spirit must nourish the body, support and carry 
it about, keep its equilibrium and overcome the 
resistance of the air and gravitation. Take for 
instance a body weighing, say, 200 pounds. Should 
the spirit suddenly leave this body in an erect 



280 
position the body would immediately collapse and 
fall to the ground. 

The mental labor, the thought work, is no less 
exacting. Of the work of the understanding, per- 
ception is the easiest. Even the judgment is com- 
paratively very easy, and the faculty of imagi- 
nation works as by itself. But in recollection and 
in reasoning the spirit must exert itself to the 
utmost, both in the faculty of the understanding 
and in the attention of the will, especially in pro- 
longed reasoning. In the activities of the facul- 
ty of the will the spirit shows its concentrated 
power of energy upon anything it undertakes to 
do, whether it be physical or mental labor, or both 
combined. The faculty of the sensibility needs 
only to be touched upon by the other faculties to 
put it into action, as a string upon a violin is 
touched by the bow to produce a certain sound. 
But even the feelings will wear upon the energy 
of the spirit. No wonder, then, if the spirit gets 
tired, sometimes, of both mental and physical 
labor, and seeks rest. 

The spirit must provide new strength, more 
energy, for renewed work. The body gets its 
strength from nourishment and rest. Whence 
the nourishment and strength of the spirit? 
There is a world of meaning in the Saviour's 
words once uttered with respect to this subject: 



281 
"Come unto me, all ye that labor and are heavy 
laden, and I will give you rest. Take my yoke 
upon you and learn of me; for I am meek and 
lowly in heart; and ye shall find rest unto your 
souls." (Matt. 11 : 28—29.) And there is anoth- 
er statement of great importance with respect to 
our subject, likewise uttered by the Great Teach- 
er: "Man shall not live by bread alone, but by 
every word that proceedeth out of the mouth of 
God." (Matt. 4: 4.) The nourishment of the 
human heart is the word of God, and this is abso- 
lutely necessary for the spirits higher activities. 
And as the word of God is the bread of life in 
this higher sense, the word that proceedeth out 
of the mouth of men, is the bread of the soul. 
Divine knowledge and human knowledge, there- 
fore, constitute the bread of the spirit's life, and 
it cannot live normally without this bread. By 
the acquisition of knowledge we gain wisdom. The 
more wisdom we thus acquire, the stronger the 
spirit will grow. By wisdom we mean that 
strength which comes from a clear comprehen- 
sion of knowledge. So much, then, concerning 
the nourishing of the spirit and the storing up 
of energy for continuous work. But how about 
the rest of the spirit? Rest for the heart of the 
spirit man will receive by communion with God 
and meditation upon Him through Christ Jesus; 



282 
and rest for the soul man will get by musing, in 
imagination, and in the association of ideas. 

How shall we, then, determine the strength of 
the spirit? By the work it has performed or is 
performing. The work that the spirit has to 
perform is, in general, twofold, namely, mental 
and physical labor. By the former we mean those 
products of man's labor which are expressions of 
his thoughts, particularly those embodied in liter- 
ature; and by the latter we mean those products 
of his labor which are expressions of bodily activ- 
ity, particularly by means of the hands and the 
feet. "By their fruits ye shall know them" (Matt. 
7:20.) 

The truth of the twofold work and mission of 
man is set forth in the following divine state- 
ments to our first parents: "The Lord God took 
the man, and put him into the garden of Eden to 
dress it and keep it" (Genesis 1: 28). That 
meant physical labor. And in order to teach man 
how to exercise his mind and set him thinking, 
God brought the living creatures unto man "to 
see what he would call them ; and whatsoever the 
man called every living creature, that was the 
name thereof. And the man gave names to all 
cattle, and to the fowl of the air and to every 
beast of the field" (Gen. 2 : 19—20) . That meant 
mental labor. To fulfill this twofold mission or 



283 
calling in the world — mental labor which is an 
activity of the spirit in the faculty of the under- 
standing, and physical labor which is an activity 
of the spirit in the exercising of the body — man 
certainly needs strength, a strong spirit. 

The everlasting power and divinity of the in- 
visible God is manifested in man and in the things 
of the created world, and thereby we know God. 
So also is man's own invisible spirit, its power 
and glory, manifested in those things which he 
has made. 

The proper way of acquiring strength of both 
mind and body must be by a full exercise of the 
whole man. The common laborer we find as a 
rule to be much stronger physically than persons 
occupied mainly with mental work, and this on 
account of constant physical exercise. Compar- 
ing the common laborer and the thinker, we find 
that the latter excels in a very high degree, and 
that on account of a constant training of the mind 
in thought work. The true strength of man, 
therefore, is found not in the body alone, nor 
in the mind alone, but in both in conjunction. 

In all work, however, the spirit is the perform- 
er. It is the spirit that through the body rules 
the world and makes it what it is. The strongest 
and the greatest men of the world are not the 
athletes, but those who are spiritually strong and 



284 
great. Such are the real thinkers, the philosoph- 
ers, whether they excel in one field of thought or 
another. Add, also, to such men a strong and 
healthy body, and we find in each one a really 
great and mighty man. 




MAN THE IMAGE OF GOD. 



MAN AS THE IMAGE OF GOD. 

About man's creation we read the following: 
"And God saith, Let us make man in our image, 
after our likeness" . . . "And God created man in 
His own image, in the image God created He him" 
(Genesis 1:26,27; 9: 6). 

For the word image in English we find in the 
Hebrew the word Tselem (D/!£), ana * f° r the 
word likeness the word Demuth ( fi } ft^ ) . The 
Greek Septuagint translation of these words is, 
respectively, eikon (• elx^v ) and homoios ( 6/Wos ). 
The original meaning of the first Hebrew word 
is shade or shadow, and of the second word like- 
ness. The corresponding Latin words are imago 
and similitudo, hence the English image and si- 
militude, or likeness. 

An image, or likeness, presupposes an arche- 
type, an original pattern or model. The pattern 
and the image, or likeness, are therefore not one 
and the same thing. There is at least as much 
difference as exists between the object and the 
shadow of that object. It is, therefore, important 
to notice that man was made not in God, but in 



288 
the image, or shadow, of God. By this mode of 
creation, however, is suggested a very close rela- 
tionship between God and man. It was in the 
image of the Triune God that man was made. 

In the divine council when God contemplated 
the creation of man in his image, Christ had as yet 
not a physical body. Four thousand years had yet 
to pass before the incarnation of Christ took place. 
Consequently the image of the Triune God in 
which man was made was of purely spiritual and 
divine essence. Hence we must seek the image 
of God not in the material substance of man, but 
in his spirit. Moreover, God is spirit, and since 
man is the image of God, how could there be any 
likeness of God in man's body? The glorified 
body of the incarnate Christ, however, has be- 
come a pattern for the glorified body of man. But 
this conformity to the image of Christ's body be- 
longs entirely to the future. 

The image of God in man consists in a spiritual 
substance, and in a likeness of God therein. The 
likeness, or some attributes not essential, may be 
changed, but the spiritual substance or essence 
itself cannot change, for if it did, it would lose 
its identity. The substance of the image holds 
the likeness. We may in our thoughts separate 
the ideas of substance and likeness, or attributes, 
but these are inseparable, as constituting an 



289 
image. There would be no real image without 
a likeness. Hence in a real and true image the 
likeness is as essential as the substance. 

We may speak of different kinds of images. 
There are images in which both the substance 
and the likeness are of a personal nature, and 
there are images of an impersonal nature, in 
which the substance may be material, but the like- 
ness of a personal nature. There are purely spir- 
itual images and there are purely material or 
impersonal images. As a purely spiritual image 
we may take the human spirit, which also is made 
in the image of God. In this image both the sub- 
stance and the likeness consists of a personal na- 
ture. As an image in which the substance is of a 
material nature and the likeness of a personal 
nature, we could mention a coin bearing the like- 
ness of some ruler, or a photograph of a human 
being. As a purely material and impersonal image 
we could mention a picture of a flower. 

With reference to man as the image of God, 
we have to deal with a purely spiritual and per- 
sonal image. How, then, do we comprehend this 
image of God in man? It is certainly not an ob- 
ject of direct perception, but an object of thought. 
And in so far as it is manifested in the body and 
through material things we can study it. Even 
God, who is spirit, reveals Himself in things cre- 

19 



290 
ated and communicates with us through means 
of physical nature, as, for instance, the Holy 
Scriptures, the Holy Sacraments, and, in sending 
His only begotten Son to the world He sent him 
as the incarnate Christ who was the express image 

Of the person Of God {x a P a X T VP rf^ VTroo-rao-ews avrov). 

Thus we have learnt to know God. As a rule, 
the spirit makes itself known to us by physical 
means, in words and deeds. These, then, bear 
witness to the nature and character of the human 
spirit. We know ourselves as individuals. We 
know our own inner life of thoughts, feelings and 
volitions. 

In studying man, even the heathen have come 
so far as to ascribe divinity to the human spirit, 
and have tried to express the same in beauty and 
strength of form in sculpture and in painting. 
Even the apostle Paul and his servant Barnabas 
were once treated as gods among that people, who, 
when seeing the wonderful deeds of the apostles, 
said: "The gods are come down to us in the like- 
ness of men" (Acts 14: 11). By studying human 
nature the heathen have come to the conclusion 
that man must be of divine nature, "the offspring 
of God" (Acts 17: 29). 

In order to draw a true conclusion as to what 
the image of God in man is, however, it is abso- 
lutely necessary to have a true knowledge of God. 



291 
We must, therefore, in some way or other, become 
acquainted with God. How can we otherwise 
compare man with his iviaker, and ascertain the 
likeness ? The picture of a friend whom we have 
seen before and perhaps spoken to or heard, is 
always welcome, because the features remind us at 
once of that friend. How different it would be 
if we did not know the original, the person him- 
self! The same thing holds true in viewing man 
as the image of God. If we do not recognize the 
image of God in man, that is, if we do not know 
God, we will not treat man as the image of God, 
and we will not enjoy the image as we should. 

The importance to man of the revelation of God 
we can easily conjecture from these comparisons. 
Man will never be respected as he should be unless 
he is studied in the light of the word of God. 

Having studied the essence and attributes of 
God, what likeness of Him, then, do we find in 
man? Of course, we cannot expect to find any- 
thing of God in man that does not exist in God, 
that is evident. But in addition to those divine 
elements, we might find, by virtue of creation and 
man's peculiar calling in the world, such things as 
are peculiar to man and not found in God. Hence 
we cannot say that whatever is found in man is 
also or must be found in God. It is also important 
to know that whatever is found in God, whether 



292 
it be His essence, attributes, or life, is absolute, 
while that which is found in man as a created 
being is non-absolute, or relative. 

In the Jloly Scriptures we learn concerning God 
that He is, with respect to His essence, spirit, love 
and light, and to His attributes that He is eternal, 
immutable, omnipresent, omnipotent, omniscient, 
all-wise, holy, just, true, good, and merciful. These 
attributes are not accidents, but are one with the 
divine essence, for God is whatever is truly predi- 
cated of Him. God's life is consequently the most 
perfect life as to the functions of sensibility, un- 
derstanding and will, as well as to His deeds or 
works. He is absolute. 

Do we then find anything like these features of 
God in man? Yes, we must, in so far as man is 
the image of God. But right here we need to be 
cautioned. Man is not what he originally was, 
for he has fallen into sin, and by that dire catas- 
trophe he was deplorably changed or ruined. And 
since the fall man has gone so far in the develop- 
ment of his sinful state as to call down upon him- 
self from time to time the wrath of God, whereby 
even the heart of man has become darkened and 
his life accordingly has become a most miserable 
life. 

The state of man being such, we find now very 
little of those divine features of God in man which 



293 
we have mentioned. But let us search for them. 
Perchance we shall find some remnants of them 
in every human being shining as streaks of gold 
in quartz. In sanctified Christians some of these 
divine traits sparkle like jewels in the sun, and 
eventually, in the kingdom of God, the image of 
God in man, when fully restored, shall shine with 
the splendor of the sun at noon-tide. For through 
the grace of God, the atonement of Christ and 
the sanctification of the Holy Ghost, man has the 
promise of being restored to a state of former 
innocence and righteousness, and perhaps to even 
a higher state. 

Let us now seek for those divine features of 
God in the human spirit. As to the essence or 
substance, do we find any likeness of God there? 
The Holy Scriptures tell us that the human spirit 
is recognized as God's spirit, "my spirit" (Genesis 
6 : 3 ; 9 : 6) , and this even after the fall of man. 
Consequently the image of God as to its essence 
was not eradicated by the fall. It was only dulled, 
and hence it can be restored and made clear. We 
also learn that the human spirit is light, "the 
lamp of the Lord" (Proverbs 20: 27), which fig- 
ure of speech denotes the spirit as an active, 
shining personality. It has also happened that 
on extraordinary occasions the light from the 
spirit has even penetrated the body and shed 



294 
luster, particularly in the countenance of man. 
This was the case with Stephen in the presence 
of the council at Jerusalem (Acts 6: 15). 

As to the attributes of the human spirit, we 
learn that the spirit is eternal, that is, relatively 
so, having a beginning with its creation* but no 
end as to duration in the future. Therefore hu- 
man spirits have been recalled after they have 
once separated from their bodies, as instanced 
in the case of Lazarus (John 11 : 44) . Thus the 
human spirit is immortal. The spirit's essence 
cannot be changed into anything else, whether of 
higher or lower nature. Man can never become 
an angel, nor can he become an animal. It is 
always the same human nature wherever we find 
it. Man, on account of sin, may sometimes act 
as an animal, as did king Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 
4: 30). The human spirit is thus seen to be 
immutable. The spirit of man cannot be every- 
where, as God can, but as far as its knowledge 
gives wings to its thoughts, it may in an instant 
encircle the globe, descend into the interior of the 
earth and, again, mount up into the heavens far 
above the sun and stars, and stand, as it were* 
in the presence of God before His throne. The 
spirit is not bound by the body; for, like Paul, the 
apostle, every human spirit can be "absent in 
body, but present in spirit" (1 Chor. 5:3). This 



295 
being present in the spirit is, of course, a presence 
by the thoughts of the heart, a real spiritual pres- 
ence. The human spirit is, therefore, relatively 
omnipresent. Its power, however, is both won- 
derful and fearful. It has the power to obey or 
not to obey even God Himself, although it must 
suffer the consequences of disobedience. The re- 
sponsibility of this power and liberty is, there- 
fore, very great. The divine attribute of omni- 
science is also wonderful. The human spirit sees 
much farther than the vision of the bodily organ, 
the eye, will allow. With closed eyes the mind 
sees in its own spiritual light. In this way it 
scans the material world as far as mortal eye has 
seen before by travel or by books. It pictures to 
itself in memory the natural as well as the spir- 
itual world, and yet it always longs for more 
knowledge. Who can tell the boundaries of the 
spirit's horizon? As to the wisdom of the spirit, 
it is as yet far from being even approximately 
all-wise. Man was not made omniscient. But 
what other earthly being can plan and reason out 
things and bring things to a determined point as 
man can? And is there anything holy and just 
and true in man ? Indeed, there is. An individual 
must be very low in degradation and sin if he does 
not feel an inclination to love the good wherever 
it is found, and to hate wickedness. Man often 



296 
knows better than he shows by his acts. He 
knows that certain acts are very wrong, but for 
certain reasons he cannot or will not change his 
course. And when we think of righteousness, it 
is accepted even among the heathen that the one 
who does good deserves merit and that he who 
does wrong should be punished. Human nature 
demands it, whether this demand be satisfied here 
or hereafter. And as to truth, the individual 
longs for it and demands it, at least of others. At 
the bottom of our hearts we appreciate the truth, 
especially when we think it will benefit us. A 
person who has once proved untruthful we do not 
easily trust. Of goodness and mercy we cer- 
tainly have more or less experience in our daily 
life. We enjoy and feel grateful for every kind 
act. And who of us would not bend down and 
help the really needy or those in sore distress? 
What mother would not sacrifice her life for her 
babe? Kindness in all its phases is the bread of 
life. We could not live without it for any con- 
siderable length of time. We feel for each other 
as human beings, and even for animals. We have 
sympathy for each other, especially on extraordi- 
nary occasions. 

The spirits life as exercised by the faculties of 
sensibility, understanding* and will is, indeed, a 
wonderful life. These faculties are far superior 



297 
to the powers of lower beings. By virtue of the 
moral faculty man is capable of the very highest 
attainments and enjoyments. No merely earthly 
being can be so happy as man when he succeeds, 
nor so miserable as man when he fails, especially 
in his moral duties. And what cannot man do if 
he wills? Every human being prefers life, 
strength, love, harmony, pleasure, the beautiful, 
and the sublime to the negatives of these, as 
death, weakness, hate, pain, and the ugly and 
debased. 

To what do all these powers of the spirit, its 
life, inclinations and attainments point? Surely 
they are all beautiful vestiges of the image of God, 
the likeness of God. They all point to man as a 
microtheos, a god in miniature. If this is shown 
more or less in his fallen state what, then, shall 
the glory of man be when he has been fully 
restored to his birthright, to be a pure and perfect 
child of God! 

Whatever good there is found in the image of 
God is from God. Whatever evil there is, is from 
another source, is something foreign to the image 
of God. What effect did the fall of man have 
upon the image of God? A fall in general always 
implies loss, and so here. What, then, did man 
really lose ? Man lost much by his sin, the trans- 
gression of God's command. He lost the blessed 



298 
communion with God. As long as the sinner is 
impenitent God cannot live in union with him. 
By this separation of God from man, man died, 
and this the very day he sinned. But this was a 
spiritual death, and not a bodily death as when 
the individual spirit separates from its body. In 
consequence of man's sin and God's separation 
from man's heart on account thereof, the spirit 
of man became darkened, perverted, and wretch- 
ed. The immediate effect of the fall of man upon 
his own spirit was a partial eclipse, which will 
gradually grow to be a total eclipse of the human 
spirit in eternity, if repentance does not in due 
season take place. In such a deplorable state we 
find to-day every unregenerated human being. To 
save humanity from this unhappy state God al- 
ready in Paradise promised to save man, and in 
the fulness of time Christ Jesus came into the 
world, reuniting man with God to a state of eter- 
nal bliss and glory. In those persons who believe 
in God, love Christ, and follow Him according to 
the Word of God, we shall always find the re- 
deemed and sanctified image of God. 

The image of God in man, then, consists, as we 
have seen, in the likeness of the very essence of 
the human spirit, and also in the likeness of attri- 
butes, and not only that, but also in the likeness 
of a life of the highest activities of the heart. By 



299 
virtue of this higher life, man is capable of self- 
control and of governing and ruling the whole 
earth. 

In Christ Jesus mankind once beheld the per- 
fect image of God. When we all have become like 
unto Him, then the image of God in us shall have 
become fully restored. Then, also, shall we, ac- 
cording to God's promises, look for new heavens 
and a new earth wherein dwelleth righteousness 
(2 Pet. 3 : 13) , a new world suited to the renewed 
and perfect man, and the human spirit shall again 
enjoy that wisdom, holiness, and blessedness 
which our first parents enjoyed in Paradise be- 
fore the fall. 



CONCLUSION. 

We have endeavored to answer the great ques- 
tion, What is man? We have succeeded, I think, 
in taking a correct picture of the whole man, not 
only of his body, but also of his spirit. To ac- 
complish this we had to employ the powerful x- 
rays of the Word of God. We certainly recognize 
this picture as a true image of ourselves. But 
who could at first even imagine that there was 
so much in man! We certainly are very richly 
endowed by nature, and we may grow richer still 
by proper development, education, and by wise 
use of our talents. Of course, there is much in 
man that, on account of sin, must be eradicated 
and remade, in order to present him as a perfect 
image of his Maker. But to do this we need 
special power from above. Our main duty with 
respect to our question was to present the genus 
man as he really is. 

We have found by our examination of man that 
he belongs to two worlds at the same time, to the 
world of matter and to the world of spirit. For 
his being consists of two distinct natures, spirit 
and body. As to his spirit he is related, not to 



301 
the angels, nor to the animals, but to God, the 
Creator of heaven and earth. He is, therefore, 
a person of noble birth, whom even the angels 
of God must serve, a person for whose salvation 
and eternal happiness God's only begotten Son 
was sent from heaven to earth. Though of ma- 
terial nature as to his body, he is not in the least 
related to the animals, for he was by an extra- 
ordinary act of creation formed out of the dust 
of the ground by the Triune God, to be a suitable 
organization for his immortal spirit; and though 
mortal and ruined by sin, his body shall never- 
theless through resurrection be restored unto the 
likeness of the glorified body of Christ, and thus 
be transformed into a spiritual, immortal, and 
heavenly body. Thus even the body of man must 
be highly respected. 

We have now studied this most wonderful mas- 
terpiece of perfect organization. We admire it 
in its normal state, nourish it, and care for it in 
every way as a necessary means of our corporeal 
existence. 

In this our treatise we have inquired into the 
very essence, attributes, powers, life, and attain- 
ments of the spirit. We have thus found not only 
the soul of the spirit, but also the very heart of it. 
We have noticed the wonderful power of memory, 
and the spirit's activities in the faculties of sensi- 



302 
bility, understanding, and will, and the marvelous 
power of the same. We have traced the spirit's 
development from the very conception in uncon- 
sciousness, we have noticed its growth through 
different stages of consciousness, and have beheld 
it by its development form constitutional tempera- 
ments and other characteristics of the spirft. We 
have also observed the spirit's strength or energy 
of life and, lastly, we have found man to be the 
image of God. 

In view of all this we certainly feel inclined to 
concur with Shakespeare : "What a piece of work 
is man ! how noble in reason ! how infinite in fac- 
ulty! in form and moving how express and ad- 
mirable! in action how like an angel! in appre- 
hension how like a god !" * 



1) Hamlet, Act II, Scene II. 



S 



INDEX. 

Absolute Being, 23. 

eternal duration, 36. 

space, 35. 
Accidental attributes, 31, 32. 
Activity and rest of body and mind, 279 — 281. 
Actual being, 22. 
Adam and Eve, 74 — 76. 

first transgression of, 247 — 248. 

origin of, 74 — 76. 

offspring of, 76, 77. 
Adhesion, 30, 37. 

Air and life of corporeal beings, 81. 
Air and spirit compared, 105. 
Air and spoken words, 48. 
Anarchy, 250. 
Angels, difference between man and, 40, 58. 

duration of, 36. 

in union with man, 24, 30. 

their influence on man, 127, 196, 197. 
Animals, difference between man and, 25, 39, 40, 43, 58, 
60—62, 94. 

duration of, 36. 

influence on man, 177. 

have no conscience, 39, 40, 64, 151. 

how created, 104. 

intelligent beings, 25, 39, 40. 

non-moral beings, 25. 

things to be admired in, 60. 

what they have accomplished, 61, 62. 

20 



306 

Anthropology, 66. 
Assimilation, 78 — 80. 
Association of ideas, 115 — 120. 

general laws of, 116. 

the workings of, 115. 

and the general faculties, 115, 116, 118. 

and imagination, 120. 
Association of ideas and morals, 117. 

and perception, 115. 

and the thinking faculty, 115, 116, 118. 

and the will, 115, 116, 118. 
Atmosphere, 24, 81. 
Attention, 118, 215 ,220, 251, 252. 

Attitudes of the heart and the soul illustrated, 157, 158. 
Attributes in general, 31, 32. 
Attributes of God, 23, 292. 
Attributes of the human spirit, 32, 106, 291 — 299. 

Being and thing, 22. 

Being, attributes of, 31—33. 

death of a, 50—53. 

description of, 22. 

duration of a, 35, 36. 

known how and when, 22. 

life of a, 36, 44. 

life principle of a, 37. 

space of a, 33, 35. 

substance of a, 29, 30. 

term explained, 63. 

what constitutes a, 32. 
Beings, different kinds of, 23, 24. 

general classification of, 26, 27. 
Belief in first cause necessary, 37. 
Bible (see Holy Scriptures), 49, 63. 
Blind person, 216. 

Blood and the circulation, 78, 79, 82, 83, 96. 
Body, the, 73—97. 

of Adam and Eve, 74, 75. 

death of the, 51. 



307 

development of, 78—80. 

doctrine of, 66, 73. 

nurture of, 78, 82, 279. 

origin and essence of, 73, 74, 140. 

resurrection, 129. 

strength of, 279. 
Body and assimilation, 78, 80. 

and the heart of the spirit, 154, 155, 267. 

and the image of God, 103, 288. 

and intelligence, 78, 85. 

and natural forces, 51, 279. 

and sensibility, 84, 85, 88, 90, 172, 173, 176, 179. 

and soul, 79, 143, 148—150, 152, 265, 266. 

and spirit, 24, 47, 48, 83, 94, 126, 127, 272. 

and will, 78, 84—86, 245. 
Bones, the, 86 — 88. 
Brain, 84, 85, 127. 

necessary in this world, 172. 

size of, 85. 

weight of, 85. 

and intelligence, 84, 85. 

and phrenology, 129. 
Butler, Ben., 85. 

Cain, 191. 

Cardiology, 153. 

Cause of assimilation, SO. 

of the color of the skin, 96. 

different kinds of, 37. 

of feelings, 177. 

the ultimate, 37. 

higher and lower, 37. 

of human life, 106. 

of the life in plants and of the inorganic world, 40, 41. 
Central ideas, 116, 117. 
Character, expressed by the eye, 92. 

moulding of, 271. 

development of children's, 271, 276. 

of the spirit, 272. 



308 
Chemical affinity and assimilation, 79. 
Chemical affinity, the cause of certain kind of life, 37. 

law of, 79. 

a natural force, 30. 
Chemical changes, 41. 
Children, development of character in, 271, 276. 

and choice, 199. 

and conscience, 129, 234. 

and feelings, 173, 175, 184. 

and freedom, 250. 

and God, 38. 

and imagination, 231, 232. 

and obedience, 175. 

and perception, 212, 213. 

and semiconsciousness, 129. 

and unconsciousness, 126. 
Chlorine, 24, 30, 32. 
Choice, 252—254. 

difference of, 253. 

decision and execution compared, 256. 

and morals, 253. 

and passions, 253. 

and sensibilty, 199, 253. 

and the understanding, 252, 254. 

and will, 253, 254. 
Christ, the perfect image of God, 299. 
Chronometers, 36. 
Circulation of the blood, 82. 
Civil government, 192, 249. 
Cohesion, 30, 37. 
Common sense, 235. 

Comparison of human activity with that of animals, 60 — 63. 
Composition of a human being, 32. 
Compound beings or substances, 23, 24, 30. 
Concepts, how acquired, 221, 223. 

always mean something, 222. 

formed also by imagination, 222, 229, 230. 

single and general, 224. 

products of the thinking faculty, 223. 



309 

universal, 64. 

what they are, 114. 
Conception, in the formation of a human being, 77. 

in the process of thought, 220 — 225. 

definition, 220. 

meaning of the word, 220. 

and judgment, 226. 

and perception, 222, 223. 
Conjugal feelings, 183, 184. 
Conscience, 232—237. 

effects of, 191. 

essential to personality, 25. 

a created power, 234. 

dependent on knowledge, 234. 

development of, 234, 235. 

peculiar to the heart of the spirit, 170, 232. 

with respect to God and fellow beings, 233. 

location of, 153. 

a law to the individual, 190, 233, 235. 

meaning of the word, 233. 

"public", 235. 

a witness of man's relationship to God, 192. 

a subfaculty of the intellect, 232. 

and sensibility, 190, 191, 233. 

and the understanding, 19*0, 191, 230, 233, 234. 

and will, 233, 234. 
Consciousness in general, 125. 

un-, 125—129. 

semi-, 129—131. 

self-, 131—132. 
Contemplative temperament, 274 — 275. 
Corporeal, the term explained, 64. 

beings and oxygen, 81. 
Correspondence between the spiritual and the material 

world, 28. 
Creation of man and the beasts, difference in the mode of, 104. 

of man, 74, 75, 77, 287. 

of human offspring, 77. 

of woman, 75. 



310 

Culture, prenatal, 272. 
self-, 276. 

Darkness and space, 34. 
Deaf persons, 216, 217. 
Death, 50—53. 

not annihilation, 52. 

bodily, 51, 141. 

cause of, 50. 

eternal, 52. 

spiritual, 51. 

temporal, 52. 
Decision, 254 — 255. 

can be changed, 255. 

before God and fellow men, importance of, 255. 

choice and execution compared, 255. 

and feelings, 199, 255. 

and understanding, 255. 
Deduction, 228. 
Deeds, influence of, 46. 

always products of the soul, 152. 
Definition of life principle and life, nature of, 43. 

explanation of terms in, 63 — 66. 

of man, satisfactory, 63. 
Demuth, 287. 
Desires, 200 — 202. 

natural, 201. 

unnatural, 201. 
Development of the body, 78—80. 

of the spirit, 264 — 276. 
Dichotomy, 139, 146. 
Diet, 80. 
Difference between soul and spirit, 138, 139—147. 

facutlies of the soul and of the heart, 170, 267 — 269. 

man and animals, 25, 39, 40, 43, 58, 60—62, 94, 104. 

man and angels,40, 58. 

person and animal, 39, 64. 
Difference in the mode of creation of the first pair and 
their offspring, 76 — 78. 



311 



Digestion, 82, 83. 

Distance through space, 34. 

Divine services, 151, 155. 

Dove, 38, 39, 231. 

Dreams, revelation in, 130. 

and sensibility, 130. 

and the understanding, 130. 

what they are, 130. 

and will, 130. 
Duration, 35, 36. 

absolute eternal, 36. 

of eternal beings immeasurable, 36. 

of life principles, 49. 

how measured, 36. 

non-absolute eternal, 36. 

past, present and future, 35. 

temporal, 36. 

and being, 36. 
Duty, 246, 247. 

Ear, the 92—94. 

and eye compared, 93. 

a receiver of intelligence, 93. 
Earth, the, 24, 34, 41. 

Economical or industrial feelings, 187, 188. 
Education of the heart, 270. 

in the home and in school, 271, 276. 

importance of correct, 269. 

of the soul, 268. 

the Word of God very important in, 235, 270. 
Effects of feelings on the body, 178, 179. 

on the other faculties, 179, 180. 

on sensibility, 178. 
Eikon, 287. 

Elective feelings, 199. 
Electricity, 37. 
Elements, combination of, 24, 30. 

of religion, 193. 

what they are, 24, 30. 



312 

Elementary being or thing, 23, 24. 

substance, 30. 
Elevation of man to a higher life, 42. 
Emotive temperament, 273. 
Enthusiasts, 273, 276. 
Environment, 271, 276. 
Essence of the human body, 73, 74. 

of the heart, 153. 

of the human spirit, 102—106, 140, 148, 256. 

of the soul, 148. 

of God, 291, 292. 
Essential attributes, 31, 32. 
Eternal being, 36. 

death, 52. 

duration, 36. 

life, 49. 

progress, 264. 
Eternity, how made known unto us, 28. 
Ether, 105. 

Ethical feelings, 190. 
Eve (see Adam and Eve), 75, 76. 
Excretion, 83. 
Execution, 256. 

compared with decision and choice, 256. 

effect on sensibility, 199, 200. 

not carried out, meaning of, 255. 

and responsibility, 256. 
Expressions of the spirit by means of the members of the 

body, 80—96. 
Extension, 35. 
External life, 46, 127. 
Eye, the, 90—92. 

transmitter and receiver of intelligence, 93. 

power of, 92. 

and attention, 151, 152. 

and ear compared, 93. 

and perception, 84. 
Eye-lids, 86. 



313 



Pace, expressions of, 90. 
Faculties, general, 138, 170. 

diagram of, 100. 

operations of, 170. 

special, 211, 212, 217. 

sub-, 170, 229, 232. 

and association of ideas, 115. 

and the brain, 127, 173. 
Fainting, 126. 
Failure, 187, 188. 
Faith, 66, 156, 161. 
Fall, effect of the, 297, 298. 
Family, creation of the human, 76. 

influence of, 46. 

and sexual feelings, 184. 
Fear of death, 51. 
Feelings, aesthetic, 188. 

aim of, 180, 181. 

causes of, 175, 177. 

economical or industrial, 187, 188. 

effects of, 178. 

elective, 199. 

imaginative, 185, 186. 

individual, respect of, 182. 

intellectual, 181, 184—198. 

kinds of, 181, 182. 

of the ludicrous, 188. 

means of, 178. 

moral, 190—192. 

natural or realistic, 195. 

"neutral," 172. 

objective, 184, 185, 194—198. 

of pain, 172, 175, 178, 180—182. 

physical, 181, 182. 

of pleasure, 172, 175, 178, 182. 

potential, 186, 187. 

religious, 192 — 194. 

sensorium of, 172, 173, 176. 

sexual Or conjugal, 183, 184. 



314 

subjective, 184, 185—194. 

supernatural or idealistic, 196 — 198. 

volitional, 181, 198—202. 

where experienced, 172 

and memory, 172. 

and inventions, 179. 

and the understanding, 174, 176, 179. 

and will, 174, 176, 179. 
Female, brain of, 85. 

origin of the body of the human, 75. 
Fine arts, 61. 
Finite space, 34. 
First cause, 37, 38. 
Flower, 24, 221. 
Food, 80, 82, 83. 
Foot, the, 89. 

Forces, natural, 30, 37, 44, 49, 50, 177, 232. 
Form of the spirit, 104. 
Freedom of will, 245—250. 

a gift, 250. 

illustrated, 247. 

limited, 246. 

a serious endowment, 250. 

and duty, 248, 249. 
Functions of the spirit, 150, 154, 279, 280. 
Fundamental impressions, 114. 
Future, 36. 
Future state of man with reference to will, 256. 

Gestures, 88. 

Goal of mankind, 63. 

God, absolute being, 23. 

attributes of, 23, 292. 

and duration, 36. 

essence of, 291, 292. 

our knowledge of, how acquired, 28, 29, 66. 

life, 49, 50. 

and space* 33, 35. 

revelation of, 28, 29, 66. 

ultimate cause of all life, illustrated, 37—39, 



315 



Gold, 24, 31. 

Gospel and the heathen, 193. 

Government, human, 192, 249. 

Gravitation, 30, 37. 

Great powers of the spirit, two, 138 — 147. 

attitudes of, 157, 158. 
Growth of the body, 77, 78. 

of the spirit, 264—270. 
Habit, 253. 
Hand, the, 88, 89. 

Happiness, 160, 174, 180, 187, 192, 253. 
Harmony and disharmony, 189. 
Head, the, 90. 
Heart of the body, 82. 

not under absolute control, 86. 

and sensibility, 84, 85. 
Heart of the spirit, 138, 144, 153—161. 

an abnormal state of, 154. 

an act of, how detected, 155. 

center of life radiation, 46, 47. 

in its highest activities, 156. 

doctrine of, 145, 153. 

essence of, 153. 

'feelings of, 156, 182, 190, 265. 

meaning of, 153. 

office of, 150, 154, 155. 

position of, 153. 

how to study the, 155. 

trusting in, 160. 

and the body, 164, 155, 267. 

and eternity, 29. 

and God, 151, 159. 

and the material world, 150, 154, 155. 

and reason, 156, 217. 

and the soul, 151, 155, 158, 267. 

and the spiritual world, 105, 150, 154. 

the understanding of the, 156, 267. 

and will, 156, 267. 

and worship, 151, 152, 155. 



316 

Heathen, 192, 193, 232. 

History, 45, 49, 61, 89, 196. 

Holy Scriptures, acknowledged as a source of truth, 73. 

a true history of human life, 49. 
Home, 249. 
Homoios, 287. 
Human body, 73—97. 

development of, 78 — 80. 
Human activity, 61. 

Human family, creation of the first, 76. 
Human life, duration of, 36. 

effect of, 46, 47. 

where recorded, 45. 
Humanity and religion, 194. 
Hydrogen, 24, 30. 
Hypocrisy, 151. 
Hypothesis, 74, 228. 

Idea of spirit, how grasped, 104, 105. 
Idealistic feelings, 196—198. 

temperament, 274, 275. 
Ideal or actual being, 22. 
Ideas, 23, 114, 116, 117. 

association of, 115 — 120. 
Idolatry, 192. 
Images, in general, 288, 289. 

different kinds of, 289. 

material, 289. 

spiritual, 289. 
Image of God, man the, 192, 287—299. 

creation of, explained, 103, 287, 288, 292. 

effect of the fall upon, 292, 297, 298. 

essence of, 288. 

features of, 292—294. 

frame of, 74. 

the perfect, 299. 

recognized, 293. 

redeemed and sanctified, 293, 298. 

restored, 293, 297, 299. 



317 



how to study the, 289. 

where found, 103, 288. 
Imagination, 229—232. 

the field of, 231. 

a subfaculty of the intellect, 229. 

value of, 231. 

a most wonderful power, 120 

and the association of ideas, 120. 

and feelings, 185, 188, 230. 

and material impressions, 216. 

and material knowledge, 216. 

and will, 230. 
Imaginative feelings, 185, 186. 
Imago, 287. 
Impersonal being, 25. 
Impressions, how developed, 113, 114. 

durability of, 215. 

fundamental, 114. 

in general, 112, 212. 

not all affect memory, 114, 212. 

in what order received, 215. 

percepts, 114. 
Inclinations, 200. 

Individual feelings to be respected when, 182. 
Induction, 228. 
Industrial feelings, 187, 188. 
Infancy of the spirit, 127. 
Infinite space, 34. 
Influence of the spiritual world on man, 196, 197. 

of human life, 46, 47. 
Inner life, 46. 
Inorganic world, touched by the Spirit of God, 41. 

destitute of intelligence, 25. 

transformation of matter in, 41, 42. 

vital principle of, 39, 41. 
Insanity and association of ideas, 131. 

and imagination, 231. 
Instinct, 40, 61, 62, 78. 
Instruction, religious, necessary, 270. 



318 
Intellect, same power as the thinking faculty, 217. 
Intellectual feelings, 184—198. 
Intelligence, of animals, 25, 39, 40. 

and growth of the body, 78, 85. 

and the brain, 85, 173. 

of man, 65, 66. 

basis for morality, 64. 

term explained, 65. 
Intelligent beings, 23, 25. 
Inventions, 179. 

Judas Iscariot, 191. 
Judgment, 226, 227. 

an act of, 226. 

and conception, 226. 

product of, 226. 

Kardia, 153. 

Kingdom, animal, 42, 62, 82. 

of heaven, 65. 

inorganic, 42, 82. 

mineral, 91. 

vegetable, 42, 82. 
Knowledge, how acquired, 80, 113, 150, 225. 

children's, 129. 

effect of spirtual powers on, 196. 

empirical, 73. 

in regard to the external world and ego, 90 — 96, 131. 

concerning life principles and their form, 45. 

memory the sine qua non in respect to, 118. 

perception absolutely necessary for, 215. 

system and order important in the acquisition of, lis. 

Labor, mental, 120, 280, 282, 283. 

physical, 150, 279, 282, 283. 
Language, formation of, 224. 

origin of, 225. 

power of, 46, 47, 93. 

spoken, 46 — 48, 93, 225. 

written, 46—48, 89, 225. 



319 



Laws of the association of ideas, 116. 

natural, 78, 79, 175. 

spiritual, 65, 79, 175. 

universal, concerning life principles, 41, 42. 
Life, 44—50. 

angelic, 49, 50. 

animal, 44, 49, 50, 61, 62. 

conveyances of, 47, 

centers, 46, 47. 

cause of, 39, 44. 

dependent on life principles, 44. 

different kinds of, 44. 

duration of, 49. 

eternal, 49. 

external, 46. 

future, 32. 

God, 49, 50. 

guides of, 173, 174. 

happy, 160, 194. 

human, 44, 45, 49, 50, 60, 61, 63, 106, 154, 279. 

influence of, 46, 47. 

inner, 46. 

inorganic, 49, 50. 

mainspring of, 81, 153. 

not mysterious, 44. 

of natural forces, 44, 50. 

of plants, 44, 45, 49, 50. 

present, 127. 

revelation of different kinds of, 49. 

spiritual, 266. 

soul, 266. 

the study of, 45. 

temporal, 49. 
Life principles, 37—43. 

of angels and man, 39, 52, 106. 

of animals, 23, 39. 

cause of life, 37, 39. 

classification of beings based on, 26. 

the controlling powers in the universe, 26. 



320 

description of, 43 — 45. 

difference between life and, 44, 45. 

duration of, 49. 

expressions of, 45. 

higher and lower, 37, 39. 

of the inorganic world, 38. 

kinds of, 37. 

and life compared, 44. 

of material nature, 39. 

organizing and formative power, 39. 

of plants, 39—41, 79. 

of spiritual nature, 39. 

the study of, 45. 

universal law of, 41. 

very mysterious, 44. 

workings of 39, 41, 50. 
Light and space, 34, 35. 
Likeness of God and man, 291, 298. 
Limbs, 87, 88. 

Limit of man's freedom, 246. 
Literature, 61. 

"Living soul," meaning of, 104, 141, 149. 
Love, 145, 250. 
Lungs, 81. 
Lusts or passions, 201. 

Magnetism, 37 . 

Mainspring of life, 82, 153. 

Male and female, 75, 77. 

Man and angels, 24, 30, 40, 58, 127, 196, 197. 

not animal, 60. 

constituent parts of, 66, 144—146, 149, 177. 

definitions, 58 — 66. 

dependent on matter and spirit, 65, 66, 177. 

duration of, 53. 

truly great, 106. 

higher life of, 42. 

the image of God, 192, 287—299. 

a law unto himself, 190. 



321 

life of, 45—47, 53. 

life principle of, 39, 45, 52. 

a person, 25, 64. 

a philosopher, 65. 

his place in the universe, 28, 52, 62. 

a religious person, 64, 269. 

responsible, 47, 152. 

a sinner by nature after the fall, 235, 292. 

a social being, 159, 267. 

a spirito-corporeal being, 25, 74. 

"a living soul," 74, 141. 

a student of divine revelation and of the world at 
large, 61. 

in his unregenerated state, 52. 

the words of, 46, 47, 152. 

a worldly, 268. 

and God, 42, 160, 190, 193. 

and the material world, 28, 196. 

and the spiritual world, 28, 196. 

materialistic views concerning, 59. 
Manifestation of the spirit, 65. 
Mankind, the goal of, 63. 

races of, 96. 
Mary, the blessed Virgin, 42, 271. 
Material being or thing, 23, 24, 36. 

substance, 29. 

food and the spirit, 83. 
Materialistic temperament, 275. 
Matter, 42, 64, 73, 85, 104. 
Maxims, 252, 254. 
Means of feelings, 178. 
Mechanical changes, 41. 
Memory, 112 — 120. 

aurora of the spirit, 119. 

definition of, 112. 

differs in different individuals, 119, 130. 

essence of, 120. 

not a faculty like the others, 112. 

functions of, 112. 

21 



322 

a happy propensity, 120. 

importance of the contents of, 119. 

inefficiency of, 220. 

meaning of the word, 119. 

opperation of, 36. 

receptive function of, 113, 114. 

retentive function of, 114. 

its usefulness, 120. 

"voluntary," 219. 

and the faculties in general, 112, 113, 119. 

and feelings, 172. 

and perception, 118. 

and percepts, 114, 212. 

and retents, 114. 

and self-consciousness, 125. 

and semiconsciousness, 129, 130. 

and thinking, 113, 114, 118. 

and unconsciousness, 126, 127. 
Memorizing, 84, 118. 
Mental work or labor, 120, 280, 282, 283. 
Mesmerism, 49. 

Methods of developing retents, 118. 
Microscope, 41, 77, 91. 
Mineral kingdom, 91. 
Mode of creation as to the first pair and their offspring, 

76, 77. 
Modes of the thinking faculty, 210, 222. 
Moral being, 23, 25, 63. 

duties, 77. 

faculty, 156, 232, 270. 

feelings, 190—192. 

obligations, 233. 

reason, 233. 

spirit, 40. 

term explained, 64, 
Morals, man elevated by, 65. 

and the association of ideas, 117. 

and freedom of will, 246. 

and intelligence, 64, 



323 

Mother, 77, 271. 
Motives, 252. 
Muscles, 86. 
Music, 89. 

and sensibility, 171. 

and the understanding faculty, 171. 

Natural desires, 201, 279. 

forces, 30, 37, 44, 49, 50, 177, 232. 

or realistic feelings, 195. 

laws, 64. 
Nephesh, 103, 141, 143, 146. 
Neptune, the planet, 34. 
Nerves, 83—85. 
Nervous system, 84, 172, 173. 

organ of the soul, 150. 

and the faculties, 128. 

and sensibility, 172, 182. 
Neutral feelings, 172. 
Nishma, 103, 141, 146. 
Non-intelligent being, 25. 
Non-absolute eternal duration, 36. 
Non-moral beings, 25. 
Nose, 94. 
Nourishment for the body, 78, 280. 

for the mind, 280, 281. 

Obedience to God with reference to spiritual and natural 

laws, 175. 
Objective feelings, 184, 185, 194 — 198. 
Obligation, moral, 233. 
Office of the heart, 150, 154, 155. 

of the soul, 149, 150. 
Offspring, human, 76 — 78. 
Optimistic temperament, 273. 
Organs and functions of the body, 81. 
Organ sensations, 182, 183. 
Organized bodies and assimilation, 79. 



324 

Origin of the human body, 73, 74. 

of the female's body, 75. 

of God in human thought, 38. 

of life as explained by scientists, 77. 

of man, 74. 

of the human spirit, 102 — 106. 
Original meaning of the word spirit, 105. 
Ought, meaning of, 190, 234, 246. 
Oxygen, 24, 30. 

Pain, sensorium of, 175. 

not essential to life, 120. 
Pair, the first human, 75, 76. 
Panorama of our life, where, 120. 
Paradise, 75, 225, 254, 299. 
Parents and their offspring, 76 — 78. 
Parts of the body most important in the active service of 

the spirit, 88—97. 
Passions or lusts, 201. 
Past, 36, 39. 

Paul, the apostle, 128, 191, 290, 294. 
Perception, 212 — 217. 

an act of, 214. 

in the acquisition of knowledge, 216. 

affects sensibility and will, 212, 213. 

a condition for the other faculties, 214. 

in different individuals, 216. 

the first active faculty, 212, 265. 

function of, 214. 

a fundamental faculty, 215. 

a special faculty of the understanding, 212. 

in early infancy, 212, 213. 

absolutely necessary for man in order to live, 216. 

is mere observation, 214. 

products of, 213. 

rapidity of, 214, 215. 

aids reflection or memory, 118. 

and association of ideas, 115. 

and attention, 215. 



325 



in children, 212, 213. 

and conception, 221. 

and material things, 23. 

and memory, 213, 216. 

and nourishing the body, 213, 265. 

and self-consciousness, 213. 

and sense organs, 212, 215. 

and sexual feelings, 184. 

and spiritual beings, 23. 

and temperament, 275. 

and thinking, 213, 215, 216. 
Percepts, durability of, 215. 

what they are, 213. 

and retents compared, 114, 213. 
Personal beings, 25. 
Person, what constitutes, 39, 64, 65. 

an educated, 116. 

a sentimental, 273. 

an uneducated, 116. 
Pessimistic temperament, 274. 
Phantasm, 232. 
Philosophers, 89, 229. 
Phrenology, 129. 
Physical feelings, 182. 
Physical labor, 150, 279, 282, 283. 
Place and space, 33. 
Plants, duration of, 36. 

life of, 44, 45, 49, 50. 

life principle of, 40, 4±. 

what they are, 25. 
Pleasure, sensorium of, 175. 
Pneumatology, 66, 103. 
Pneuma, 102, 139, 141, 146. 
Position of the heart of the spirit, 153. 

of the soul, 148, 149. 
Potential feelings, 186, 187. 
Powers of the spirit, the two great, 138 — 147. 
Prenatal culture, 272. 



326 

Present, 35. 

life, 35, 127. 
Products of the thinking faculty, 218. 
Propositions, 226, 227. 
Psyche, 139, 143, 146, 148. 
Psychology, 148. 
Psychologists, views on soul and spirit, 145. 

Questions concerning the origin of God, useless, 38. 
on being and kinds of beings, 17. 
on substance and attributes, 18. 
on space and duration, 18, 19. 
on life principles, 19. 
on life and death, 20, 21. 
on definition of man, 57. 
on the body, 69—72. 

on the origin and essence of the spirit, 101. 
on the states of the spirit, 123, 124. 
on the difference between soul and spirit and on the 

two great powers, soul and heart, 135 — 137. 
on the faculties in general and on sensibility, 167 — 169. 
on memory, 109 — 111. 
on the understanding, 205 — 210. 
on wjll, 241—243. 
on the development of the spirit, its temperaments or 

characteristics, on the strength of the spirit, and on 

man as the image of God, 259 — 263. 

Races of mankind, cause of, 96. 

different, 96. 

propagation of, 184. 
Realistic feelings, 195. 
Reason, 120, 217. 
Reasoning, 227 — 229. 

an act of, 218, 227. 

different methods of, 227, 228. 

and judgment, 227. 
Receptive function of memory, 113, 114. 



327 

Recollection, 118, 119, 219, 220. 

definition, 219. 

not memory, 118. 

and association of ideas, 118, 219, 220. 
Reflection, same as association of ideas, 115. 
Regeneration, 52. 
Relative being, 23. 

Religion belongs preeminently to the heart of man's spirit, 
194. 

essential elements of, 193. 

heathen, 193. 

instruction in, essential, 270. 

man's attitude to God called, 193. 

and imagination, 232. 

and worship, 64, 194. 
Religious feelings, 192—194. 
Remorse, 191, 233. 
Repetition, value of, 118. 
Respiration, 81. 

Responsibility, 47, 130, 131, 191, 192, 256. 
Rest of the body, 279. 

of the spirit, 281, 282. 
Results of human activity and animal life Compared, 60--63. 
Resurrection body, 129. 
Retentive function of memory, 114. 
Retention, 223. 

Retents, 114, 118, 213, 222, 223. 
Revelation and the human body, 154. 

importance of, 28, 291. 

in dreams, 130. 

necessary, 28. 

of the spirit, 290. 

and spiritual beings, 23. 
Ruash, 141, 146. 

Salt, 24, 30, 32. 
Secondary substances, 30. 
School and education, 249, 250. 
Science, 61, 228. 



328 
Scientists explaining the origin of life, 77. 
Secrecy, 160. 
Self-accusation, 191. 
Self-approbation, 191, 233, 235. 
Self-consciousness, 131, 132. 

and conscience, 131. 

and perception, 213. 

and responsibility, 47, 121. 

and will, 252. 
Self-esteem, 187. 
Semiconsciousness, 129 — 131. 
Sensation, organ, 183. 

vital, 182, 183. 
Sense organs, loss of, 217. 

and external objects, 214. 

and the heart of the spirit, 154. 

and knowledge, 150. 

and the order of impressions, 215. 

and perception, 214. 

and retents, 222, 223. 

and the soul, 150. 
Sensibility, 170—202. 

definition of, 171. 

diagram of, 166. 

dominant in the first stages of man's development, 265. 

as a guide, 173. 

and the body, 84, 88, 90, 176, 179. 

and choice, 199, 253. 

and decision, 199. 

and the other faculties, 171, li6, 179. 

and temperaments, 273. 
Sensorium, 172. 

diagram of, 176. 

two natures of, 175. 

the nervous system not, 172. 

of pain, why, 175, 274. 

of pleasure, 175, 273. 
Sexual or conjugal feeling, 183, 184. 
Shakespeare, 302. 



329 

Silver, 31, 32. 

Similitudo, 287. 

Sin, effect on sensibility, 274. 

and freedom of will, 247. 

and the image of God, 298. 
Skeleton, the, 86, 87. 
Skin, 95, 96. 

original color of, 96. 

and races, 96. 
Skull, 87. 

Slavery, spiritual, 246. 
Sleep and the creation of woman, 75. 

and rest, 279. 

and revelation, 154. 

and unconsciousness, 126. 
Sodium, 24, 30, 32. 
Soliloquy, 159. 
Soma, 73, 139. 
Somatology, 66, 73. 
Somnambulism and common dreams, 131. 

and semiconsciousness, 130. 
Soul, 138. 

activity of, 149, 150, 266. 

the first active power of the spirit, 265. 

its first and last desires, 82. 

development of, 265, 268. 

of divine nature, 148. 

doctrine, 145, 148 

essence of, 143, 144, 148. 

the external part of the spirit, 148, 150. 

feelings of, 182, 184, 267. 

functions of, 150. 

office of, 149, 150. 

position of, 148, 149. 

study, 152. 

and the body, 79, 143, 148—150, 152, 265, 266. 

and the heart of the spirit, 150—152, 154, 157, 158, 267. 

and reason, 217. 

and understanding, 267. 



330 

and will, 267. 

and the world, 105, 149, 150, 154. 

and worship, 143, 151, 152. 
"Soul and body," 139, 142, 144. 
Sounds, 92, 93. 
Space, 33. 

absolute, 35. 

a correlate of being, 35. 

implies extension, 35. 

finite and infinite, 34. 

with reference to God and created beings, 33. 

an invisible thing, 34. 

objects indicating its presence, 34. 

relative or non-absolute, 35. 

vacant, 33, 34. 
Spirit, the human, 102 — 302. 

in full activity when, 155. 

appearance, 104, 293. 

created, 102, 103. 

development of, 264 — 276. 

essence of, 148, 256. 

general faculties of, 138. 

subfaculties, 170, 229, 232. 

form of, 104. 

the two great powers of, 105, 157, 158. 

idea of, 104, 105. 

immaterial, 105, 140. 

immortal, 104, 106, 294. 

the image of God, 103, 104, 106, 287—299. 

an indivisible unity, 138, 147. 

its influence on the body, 48, 83, 126, 271. 

life principle of the body, 82, 106, 141, 279. 

being created, limited, 292. 

localized, 47, 104, 256. 

manifestations of, 65. 

meaning of the word, 105. 

moral, 106. 

the twofold nature of, 217. 

origin and essence of, 102 — 106, 140. 



331 

personal, 104, 106. 

quintessence of, 153. 

its relation to God, 103, 104, 141, 146, 293. 

rest of, 280. 

soliloquy of, 159. 

states of, 125—132. 

strength of, 279—284. 

and assimilation, 80. 

and immaterial food, 83. 

and material food, 83. 

and matter, 127, 129. 

and the nervous system, 84, 172, 173. 
Spirit, in general, 105, 106. 
"Spirit and body," 139, 146. 
"Spirit and soul and body," 139, 144, 149. 
Spiritual being or thing, 23, 129. 

death, 298. 

possessions, where, 120. 
Standard of morals, 235. 
States of the spirit, 125—132. 
Stomach, 83. 

Strength of the spirit, 279—284. 
Strong men, who are, 283, 284. 
Study of life principles and life compared, 45. 
Subfaculties of the intellect or thinking faculty, 170, 

229, 232. 
Subjective feelings, 184 — 194. 
Substance, 29, 30. 
Success, 187, 188. 
Sun, 34, 36. 

Supernatural feeling, 196 — 198. 
Syllogism, 227. 
Synechdoche, 144. 
System, 118, 228. 

Tears, 92. 
Teeth, 87. 
Telepathy, 49. 



332 

Temperaments, 270—276. 

contemplative, 274, 275. 

emotive, 273. 

idealistic, 274. 

materialistic, 275. 

optimistic, 273. 

pessimistic, 274. 

volitive, 275. 
Temporal duration, 36. 

life, 49. 
Terms, 224, 226, 227. 
Thing, what constitutes, 32. 

essential characteristics of, 22. 

and being, 22. 

and life principles, 22, 37. 
Thinking faculty, 217—237. 

an act of, 218. 

definition, 217. 

an elahorative faculty, 114. 

functions of, 214. 

same as intellect, 217. 

modes of thinking of, 219. 

products of, 218, 219, 224. 

subfaculties of, 229, 232. 
Thinking faculty and the association of ideas, 115, 116, 118. 

and memory, 113, 114, 118, 217, 219. 

and perception, 115, 213, 217, 218, 222, 223. 

and the sense organs, 223. 

and temperaments, 274, 275. 
Theologians, 144, 145, 148, 149, 275. 
Theology, 251. 
Thoughts, transmission of, 48. 

of being and space, 35. 
Time, 35, 36. 
Tongue, 95, 96. 
Touch, 95, 216, 265. 
Tradition, 89. 

Transgression, 180, 248, 250. 
Tree and space, 33, 34. 



333 



Trichotomy, 139, 142. 

Trunk of the body, 87. 

Trust in God and fellow beings, 160, 161. 

Tselem, 287. 

Ultimate cause, 37. 
Unconsciousness, 125 — 129. 
Understanding, 211—237. 

diagram of, 204. 

a general faculty, 211. 

influenced by sensibility and will, 211. 

inorganic world and plant life void of, 25, 40. 

limited, 237. 

products of, 213, 218, 219, 223, 224, 226, 228. 

what constitutes, 211. 

and the brain, 84. 

and choice, 252—254. 

and dreams, 130. 

and intellectual feelings, 184. 

and natural or realistic feelings, 195. 

and temperaments, 274. 
Uneducated people, 173, 231. 
Unnatural desires, 201. 
Union of spirit and matter, 24. 

spirits, 24. 
Universal concepts, 25. 
Universe, full of life, 41. 

kinds of life in, 50. 

material and spiritual worlds in, 28. 

what constitutes, 25, 26. 

kinds of beings in the, 23. 

our knowledge of, 28, 29. 
Universal laws as to life principles in general, 41, 42. 

as to a dead life principle or a body, 41, 42. 

Vacant space, 33, 34. 
Vegetable kingdom, 42, 82. 

life, 44, 45, 49, 50. 
Vital sensations, 182, 183. 



334 
Volitional feelings, 181, 198—202. 
Volitive temperament, 275. 
"Voluntary memory," 219. 

Water, 24, 30, 80. 
Webster, Daniel, 85. 
Will, 244—256. 

its bearing on the future state of man, 256. 

condition of, 251. 

diagram of, 240. 

freedom of, 245—250. 

a general faculty, 244. 

of the heart of the spirit, 244. 

of the soul, 244. 

and association of ideas, 115, 116, 118. 

and the body, 84—86, 245. 

and desires, 200, 201. 

and the other faculties, 245. 

and feelings, 174, 176, 179. 

and morals, 248, 249. 

and responsibility, 244. 

and somnambulism, 131. 

and temperaments, 275. 
Wireless telegraphy, 48. 
Wisdom, 281. 

Word of God, food for the spirit, 281. 
Words, formation of, 222, 226. 

importance and value of, 47, 93. 

influence of, 46, 281. 

represent objects, always stand for something, 222. 

origin of, 224. 

products of the thinking faculty, 224. 

spiritual things, 23. 

vehicle of the spirit, 47. 

and seeds compared, 93. 
Works of God in nature, 91. 

of man in art, 91. 



335 



Work (labor), man born for, 187. 

mental, 120, 280, 282, 283. 

physical, 150, 279, 282, 283. 

of the spirit, 279—284. 
World (material), a general cause of feelings, 177. 

elementary substances in, 30. 

knowledge of, first in order, 131. 

an object of the soul's desire, 82. 

a part of the universe, 28. 

(spiritual), a general cause of feelings, 177. 

elements of, 30. 

an object of the heart's desire, 269. 

a part of the universe, 28. 

our knowledge of, 28, 29, 196, 198. 

partly sealed to earthly beings, as man, 128. 
Worship, belongs preeminently to the heart, 194. 

kind of, depends on man's attitude to God, 193. 

man must, 64. 

soul- and heart-, different, 151, 155. 
Worshipper, 64, 151. 
Written language, 47. 



MAR 20 1913 



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